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CDPyRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



ONE HUNDRED LESSONS 



IN 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



A Manuai< and Tkxt of Elementary Agriculture 
FOR Rural Schools 



BY 

ARETAS W. NOLAN, A. B. 

»\ 

Professor of Horticulture, Forestry, and Economic Entomology 
» West Virginia University. 
Formerly Superintendent of Lima, Indiana, Consolidated Schools. 



FAITH 

Here in the country's heart, 
Where the grass is green. 

Life is the same sweet life 
As it e'er hath been. 

Trust in a God still lives. 

And the bell at morn 
Floats with a thought of God 

O'er the rising corn. 

God comes down in the rain, 
And the crop grows tall — 

This is the country faith, 
And the best of all. 

— Norman Gale 



The Acme Publishing Company 

Morgantown 

West Virginia 



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^1 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two CoDies Received 

JAN 13 1909 

Oopyi'ivnt Entry 

01KS9 oJ XXc No, 



Copyright, 1908, by 

The Acme Publishing Company 

Morgantown, W. Va. 

All rights reserved 



TO 
MY FATHER AND MOTHER 
WHO ALL THEIR LIVES 
HAVE DWELT AMONG THE FIELDS 
IS THIS BOOK DEDICATED. 



PREFACE 

The preparation of this book was undertaken pri- 
marily that the classes in Agricultural Education in 
the Summer Sessions of the West Virginia University 
might have in one book the directions for all laboratory 
experiments and exercises, and such information as 
will enable the student to teach the eleiuents of agri- 
culture in the public schools. 

It has been the aim of the author to simplify the 
subject-matter, materials, and methods usually pre- 
sented in text-books on Agriculture, so that the 
teacher in the one-room country school, or in the 
upper grammar grades of a graded school, may find 
the lessons easily practical, within the range of the 
pupil's power, and full of profitable interest and edu- 
cational value. 

It is taken for granted that the teacher will have 
time for only one class in this subject, and with prob- 
ably two or three recitation periods per week; there- 
fore the lessons have been adapted to the capacity of 
pupils of the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. beloAv 
which, in the opinion of the writer, elementar}- Agri- 
culture, as such, should not be taught. 

The lessons do not follow each other in very close 
sequence, each being complete in itself and aillowing 
the teacher to choose as the season and occasion make 
the materials available. If the work is not conducted 
by means of real things, the educational value is lost. 
The lessons are given for the purpose of teaching the 



fundamental pr'nciples of Agriculture, and if handled 
properly, will mean an intellectual development of the 
pupil. 

Any energetic teacher, bv carefully planning the 
work in advance, can do creditable class work, if he 
is willing to "do things." Most of the lessons of this 
book have been personally taught or supervised by 
the author, and they have been found entirely feasible, 
even in the country schools. 

The author wishes to express his grateful appreci- 
ation to all those who have kindly helped by review- 
ing the manuscript or b)- loaning illustrations. 

The following persons have been very helpful: 

Dr. T. C. Atk-eson, Prof. D. W. Working. 

We are indebted to the following persons and 
experiment stations for illustrations, and bulletins : 

Dr. L. H. Bailey, for the use of the "Rural School 
Leaflets;'' Prof. B. M. Davis, for the Miami Bulletins; 
West Virginia Experiment Station, B. F. Johnson and 
Orange-Judd Publishing Cos., and Purdue University, 
Indiana. 

Morgantown, 1908. The; Author. 



INTRODUCTION 

Teachers everywhere are awakenmg to the belief 
that there are two great r&lations to be brought alwiit 
ill the educative process. First, the close relation of 
head, heart, and hand ; second, the close relation of 
school and comnumity life. The dominant interests 
in the community may well be the key to intelligent, 
interesting work in the school. The dominant interest 
in rural life is nature and agriculture. Agriculture in 
its many phases will furnish the subject-matter for 
the widest correlation and the deepest interpretation 
of life for the countr}^ child. 

The vast majority of the ])eople of this country, 
as elsewhere, must get their sustenance from the soil ; 
and the education of the future must in some way, 
more than ever before, inspire a love for the land. We 
do not teach literature and composition to make poets 
and authors of the boys and girls ; neither do we teach 
agriculture primarily to make farmers of them. Ti 
we teach literature to give knowledge, culture, and ap- 
preciative attitude toward the highest of fine arts, so 
we teach agriculture to give knowledge, culture, and 
appreciative attitude toward the highest of natural 
arts. 

Heretofore the schools, text-books, and teachers 
emphasized the city life and neglected the farm and 
country life. Now the fifty agricultural colleges have 
become so many infection points, infusing new life, 
and establishing new units of education, and brinjjing 



( X iRODUCTIOX IX 

to the country all the advantages, with few of the 
evils of city life. With the agricultural college at 
the apex of this new system, the agricultural high 
schools growing into the central portion, and the im- 
proved rural schools as the basis of the structure, a 
svstem of education is being established out of which 
shall evolve a new earth. 

It is not the purpose of education to latinize or to 
agriculturize the people into classes, but to socialize 
through active and efficient participation in the most 
helpful services at hand. The teaching and study of 
elementary agriculture may fulfill this modern aim of 
education, and so our state legislators spoke wisely 
when they decreed that elementary agriculture shall 
be taught in the common schools of AA^est A'^irginia. 

Dne great need now confronts us. The agricul- 
tural knowledge is available, the children are waiting 
and ready — where are the trained teachers? We be- 
lieve, however, that the teachers will not be less pro- 
gressive than the legislators, but will heartily approve 
this advance step, and speedily prepare themselves to 
do their part. AA'hile this preparation proceeds, the 
teacher must hold these two keys which will unlock the 
doors to successful progress : ( i ) a close study of 
the child, his weakness, his strong points, his domi- 
nant interests, and his inclinations ; and (2) a careful 
study of the community life, its dominant interests 
and its ideas. 

Agriculture in some form or other is the dominant 
interest of rural life. It is the common topic of con- 
versation. It is the thing the children hear and know 
most about. From it illustrations mav be drawn in 



IN il'ODrtTlON 



every subject of the school curriculum. If the teacher 
in using agriculture as a means in his teaching knows 
enough about the science of the subject itself to speak 
with authority, so much the be-.er. If the teacher can 
show wha' industry, application, and b.rains can ac- 
complish in agriculture, it is an easy step to the appli- 
cation of these qualities in the formation of character. 
If the rural teacher cannot do this, he is not fit to 
teach in the country school. The rural school must 
forever remain a part of the country, and the boys and 
girls here have a right to the best of advantages. And 
it remains for the teacher, partly through the teach- 
ing of elementary agriculture, to make the rural school 
the highest and best factor in the fulfillment of that 
vision, seen by the prophet of the Apocalypse, "A 
New Hea^'en and a New Earth." 

The vital question for the teacher is — what to 
do now? Given the s}-mpathetic, intelligent attitude 
toward the subject, and a desire to teach it success- 
fully, we may proceed to some detailed subject-matter 
and methods. It is the purpose of the Avriter to out- 
line a series of lessons in elementary agriculture, 
adapted to the heeds and conditions of the rural 
schools and the grammar grades of city schools. These 
lessons have been found practical by the writer, and 
if the teacher is willing to "do things" they may prove 
helpful and suggestive and may lead to ideas and prac- 
tices which will bring money returns to the farmer. 

These three principles should be the criterion in 
the presentation of every lesson : 

I. The method, to be observational whenever 
possible. 



INTRODUCTION XI 

2. The materials, the common things and pro- 
cesses of nature, direr.tly or indirectly related to farm 
life. 

3. The view-point, the human interest relation in 
every-day /life. 

It is not the purpose to make "ready-made" les- 
sons which will discourage or take away the need of 
effort on the part of the teacher, but to furnish sug- 
gestive subject-matter and methods, upon which the 
teacher may build from his own initiative and individ- 
uality. The lessons may seem unorganized as here 
presented, for the attempt is to organize educationally 
upon the above principles, rather than upon sequence 
of subject-matter. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 

1. Read from other text-books the subject-matte'- 
treated in these lessons. 

2. Collect beforehand the materials needed for 
experiments, and have everything' readv for the 
recitation. 

3. Ask the pnpils to assist in collecting- the ma- 
terials, and have them perform the experiments when 
possible. 

4. ]\Iake many excursions for observations of 
good and bad farming methods. Bring the class to 
the material when the material can not be brought 
to them. 

5. Have a school garden, if possible. 

6. AA'rite to the State Agricultural Experiment 
Station and to the Department of Agriculture at 
Washington for information, bulletins, and seeds. 

7. Each pupil should have a permanent note- 
book in which to keep a neat pen-and-ink record of 
each lesson. An example of how each lesson may be 
written up, is given in the appendix. The work of writ- 
ing each lesson creates a better interest and gives the 
pupil something definite to do. 

8. The lessons need not follow the order given m 
the text. The suggestions for the season accompany 
each lesson, those for the winter being so suggested, 
because the material used is then more available than 
much of that in the other lessons. 

9. The writer will gladly reply to inquiries from 
teachers concerning anv points in these lessons not 
clearlv understood. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

LESSON PAGE 

1 Composition of Soils 1 

2. A Study of Soils i 

3 Relation of Soil to Water G 

4 Capillarity of Soils 8 

5 Fertilizers and Plant Foods 10 

6 Plant Foods 16 

7 Slopes and Drainage 20 

S The Root System of the Plant 21 

9 Root Hairs 24 

10 General Study of Germination 27 

11 Structure of Seeds 29 

12 Selecting Seed Corn in the Field 31 

13 Scoring Seed Corn 34 

14 Selecting and Testing Seed Corn 41 

15 Growing Musk-melons 48 

16 Garden Making 50 

17 Planting the Garden 53 

18 Tree Planting 57 

19 Planting a Farm Wood-lot 59 

20 An Excursion to the Woods 61 

21 Improving the Soil 63 

22 Rotation of Crops 65 

23 Growing Alfalfa 67 

24 Treating Seed Potatoes to Prevent Scab 70 

25 Biological Maps of Home Farms 73 

26 Spraying for Coddling Moth and Fungous Diseases 75 

27 Budding 78 

28 Grafting 81 

29 San Jose Scale and Its Treatment 84 

30 Collections of Local Products 8G 

31 Habits of the Common Weeds 88 

32 The Flower 91 



XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS 

LBS SOX PAGE 

33 The Wheat Crop 94 

34 The Corn Crop 96 

35 The Roots of Corn and Clover 98 

3G Suckers on Corn and the Stooling Habit of Wheat, 100 

37 Plant Propagation from Cuttings 102 

38 Plant Stems 105 

39 Leaves 107 

40 A Study of Fruits 110 

41 Decay in Apples 112 

42 Judging Apples 113 

43 Pruning 114 

44 A Hotbed Garden 11 G 

45 Field Study of the Common Grains 118 

4(; The Best Corn or Wheat in the Communily . . . . . . 119 

47 Propagation of Raspberries 120 

48 Raising Cucumbers in the Garden 122 

49 The Pea Family 124 

50 No Tvi^o Plants Alike 127 

51 Transplanting 130 

52 The Toad the Farnier's Friend 132 

53 The Driving Horse 13") 

52 The Draft Horse 139 

55 The Dairy Cow 143 

56 The Beef Cow 147 

57 The Composition of Milk 150 

58 The Souring of Milk 153 

59 The Babcock Test for Butterfat in Milk 156 

60 Sheep 158 

61 The Hog 163 

62 Poultry 169 

63 A Study of Feathers 172 

64 A Study of the Egg 176 

65 Food Studies ■ 179 

66 Food Proportions and Requirements 182" 

67 Tests for Food Compounds 184 

68 Determining the Rations of Fai-m Animals. ....... 186 

69 Feeding Standards for Farm Animals 189 

70 An Outline of the Animal' Kingdom 190 



TABLE OF CONTENTS XV 

■LESSON PAGE 

71 The Orders of Insects 192 

72 The Grasshopper 195 

73 The Butterfly 198 

74 The Fly 201 

75 The Bugs 204 

IG The Dragon Fly 20G 

77 The Bee 208 

78 The Beetle 212 

79 Spraying Calendar 214 

80 Value of Birds to Agriculture 21G 

81 A Comparison of Agricultural Products 218 

82 Crop Records 220 

83 An Estimate of the Cost and Receipts of a 

Crop Rotation 222 

84 Treating Grains to Prevent Smut 224 

85 Treating Legumes to Get a Good Stand 22G 

86 Roads and Road-making 228 

87 An Assessment of Farm Values 233 

88 Farm Workshops and Laboratories 234 

89 Farm Machinery 23G 

90 The Water-Supply 23S 

91 Cultural Requirements for Vegetables 241 

92 Knot-tying in Ropes 243 

93 Fences 245 

94 Wood-working 247 

95 The Outlook in Agriculture in West Virginia.... 251 

96 The Rural Free Mail Delivery 253 

97 Beautifying Home and School Grounds 25G 

98 The Farm Home 261 

99 The Grange 264 

100 Juvenile Agricultural Societies ^ 268 

Appendix 274 



Elementary Agriculture 



LESSON I 

Title. — Composition of Soils. 

Season. — Any season when ground is not frozen. 

Object. — To study the composition of some of our 
farm soils. 

Material. — A cupful of ordinary soil, some humus, 
three one-quart fruit-jars and water. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Soil is composed of particles of rock and a greater 
or less amount of humus, including air and soil water. 
Before soil is a good place for plant roots, it must con- 
tain the proper amount of heat, and the soil water in 
which the plant food is soluble must be slightly 
alkaline. 

Humus is the decaying roots, stems, manures, 
leaves, etc. Leaf mould from the woods is the best 
example. Ask the pupils to bring some leaf-mould 
for this lesson. 

To obtain the sand, clay, and silt from the soil, 
proceed as follows : 

Place the cupful of soil in one of the jars, cover 



OXS HUNDRED LESSONvS IN 



with water, and let it soak for a few hours. This will 
separate the soil granules. Fill the jar two-thirds full 
of water, stir the contents thoroughly, then let the soil 
partio^.es settle for one minute. Drain off the water 
and suspended soil into another jar, leaving sand and 
gravel in the first jar. 

Let the contents of the second jar settle for five 
minutes and drain off as before, into the third jar. 
In the second jar is left silt. 

Let the contents of the third jar settle three aays ; 
then drain off the water. You have left clay. 

This experiment may be carried on during several 
days, in connection with other experiments in soil. 

Compare sand, silt, clay, and humus, as to origin, 
color, size of particles, and stickiness. Rub the differ- 
ent soils between the fingers, and it will help you to 
compare size of particles, and characteristic qualities. 

Place some humus on a hot stove. Does it burn? 
Does the sand or clay? Which is the stickiest soil? 
Which is the heaviest? Which ought not to be worked 
while it is wet? Why? 

The different proportions of these ingredients 
give us our farm soils. A loam is a mixture of sand, 
silt, clay, and humus. The ingredient predominating, 
distinguishes the kind of loam. 

Note. — Soil particle dimensions: 

Stones — above i millimeter. 

Sand — between i millimeter and .05 millimeter. 

Silt — between .05 millimeter and .005 millimeter. 

Clay — between .005 millimeter and .0005 milli- 
meter. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



Humus varies from woody fragments to black 
powdery material. (By Ethel Cowans.) 

Note. — Fill out and learn the following table 
showing the ways in which soil is formed : 



By atmosphere. 


By water. 


By plants. 


By animals. 


By man. 


Winds. 


Rivers. 


Root 

pressure. 


Burrowing. 


Tillage. 


Chemical 
action. 


Landslides. 


Acid 
secretion. 


Earthworms. 

Animal 
accumulation. 


Irrigation. 


Temperature 
changes 


Oceans. 


Bacteria. 


Control of 
streams. 




Frost. 


Vegetable 
deposit. 


Mining. 




Ice. 






Lumbering. 




Glaciers. 
Chemical 
action. 

















ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON II 

Title.— A Study of Soils. 

Season. — Fall or Spring. 

Object. — To learn the nature and properties of dif- 
ferent kinds of soil. 

Material. — The different soils in the school-room in 
convenient vessels, or pupils in the field. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Have the different types of soils before the pupils 
as follows : 

1. Clay soil, of heavy, sticky consistency. 

2. Sandy soil, a large amount of sand present. 

3. Sandy loam, containing more sand than day. 

4. Clay loam, containing more clay than sand. 

5. Humus- soil, containing a large amount of de- 
caying organic matter. 

Have pupils observe and feel each of these types. 

Which is the commonest in this locality? How 
was the soil formed? 

Name some crops which will grow best on each 
kind of soil. 



ELEJIEXTARY AGRICULTURE 



The following" table should be made out in the 
pupils" note-books : 



Kind of Soil Where found Growth on It Price per Acre 



Note. — In a.ll these lessons the pupil should keep 
a note-book record, following the form given, for each 
lesson, and under Subject-matter and Method in his 
note-book, he should make all tabulations and answer 
all questions. 



ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON III 

Title. — Relation of Soil with Water. 

Season. — Any season when soils are obtainable. 

Object. — To show the absorbing and retaining powers 
of the different kinds of soil. 

Material. — The five different kinds of soil, or merely 
the sand, clay, and humus ; box prepared as de- 
scribed below; cloth, and lamp chimneys. 
(Apparatus of Fig. i may be used also.) 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Make a rack to hold three straight lamp chim- 
neys, by boring holes in the side of a box. Tie a cloth 
over one end of the chimneys, fill each with one of the 
different kinds of soil. Place the cloth end of the 
chimney downward through the holes in the box. 
Have a glass tumbler under each chimney. Slowlv 
pour water into the top of the chimneys. Through 
which does it drip first? Which absorbs most before 
it begins to drip? Pour the same amount of water 
into each chimney, and observe which soil retains 
the most. 

For a second part of this exercise, fill the same 
chimneys as before with dry soil, and set them in the 
rack so that the cloth-end reaches down into the tumb- 
lers, filled to equal heights with water. In which 
chimney does the water rise most rapid.ly? In which 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



does it rise the highest? The teacher may easily apply 
the facts learned in this experiment. 

For a third part of this study, fill two flat pans 
with the same kind and amount of soil, and thoroughly 
soak each pan of soil with water. Then cover the wet 
soil of one pan with a thin mulch of dust and leave 
the other uncovered. Set aside and notice again after 
24 hours. Which has lost the greater weight through 
surface evaporation ? The dust mulch prevents evap- 
oration, and is thus a good covering for soils to help 
them retain their moisture. 






Fig, I. 




APPARATUS TO TEST THE CAPACITY OF SOILS TO TAKE fN 
RAINFALL 



ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON IV 

Title.— Capillarity of Soils. 

Season. — For any season. 

Object. — To determine the effect upon the germina- 
tion of seed, of firming the soil about them, and 
also the effect upon the movement of soil water. 

Material. — Two tin cans, pea seeds, soil, pie-tins, and 
water. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

(a) Number the tin cans i and 2. Put good soil 
in both cans. In No. i leave the soil as loose as possi- 
ble, and cover the seeds planted in it with loose soil 
In No. 2 press down the soil as you are filling it, then 
plant the seeds at the same depth as in No. i, but 
lightly firm the soil over the seeds in No. 2. Observe 
and record which seeds germinate first. 

(b) Make holes in the bottoms of the tin cans 
used in part (a). Have equal amounts of soil in both 
cans. Firm the soil well in No. 2, so that it is smooth 
and level. Leave the soil loose in No. i. Sprinkle 
dry dust over the surface of both soils. Set the cans 
of soil in the pie-tins, and fill the pie-tins with water. 
Observe and record in which can the water from be- 
low, first dampens the dry soil on the surface. 

Note. — In this experiment you observe a phenom" 
enon called capillarity. In this case it is the passage 



ELEMEXTARY AGRICULTURE 



of water through the minute spaces between the soil 
particles. When the particles of soil are far apart and 
there are many air-spaces, the water cannot pass read- 
ily by capillarity. Some clay soils may be so fine and 
closely packed, however, that capillarity acts very 
slowly. In sandy soil capillarity acts quickly 

On the other hand, the soil particles may be so 
loosely connected as to prevent capillarity. This is 
the explanation of the value of the surface mulch. 
The looseness of the surface soil, prevents the escape 
of the soil water below, brought up by ca])illarity. 



10 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON V 

Title. — Fertilizers and Plant Foods. 

Season. — Any time. May be a Winter study. 

Object. — To understand plant foods, and how to fer- 
tilize the soil. 

Material. — Two cans or flower-pots filled with clean 
sand, (made clean by stirring in water, and pour- 
ing off the cloudy water), a handful of wheat, and 
Bigelow's compressed tablets'^'. 

SLIBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

To prepare the pupils for this and the next lesson,, 
the teacher should present the following introductory 
facts in as simple a way as possible : — 

*Note. — The tablets to be used in this lesson, can 
be obtained from Edward F. Bigelow, Stamford, 
Conn., at loc a box. Each tablet is composed of the 
following ingredients : — 

Common salt (sodium chloride), 2^/2 grains. 

Plaster of Paris (calcium sulphate), 2^^ grains. 

Epsom salts (magnesium sulphate), 2^ grains. 

Phosphate of lime (calcium phosphate), 2^2 
grains. 

Salt-petre (potassium nitrate), 5 grains. 

Compounds of iron and chlorine (ferric chloride), 
i-io erain. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICTLTURE 



11 



o 

|g 
o H 

"3 







12 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 

Chemists have found that all the different sub- 
stances of the world can be separated into about 
eighty different things. These are called elements. 
Iron, gold, silver, tin, carbon, sulphur, etc., are ele- 
ments. No one has been able to separate them into 
different things. Gold cannot be separated into anv- 
thing but gold. For centuries men tried to make gold 
out of other things, but they failed. Water is not an 
element; it is a compound. A chemist can separate it 
into two gases, hydrogen and oxygen. 

All living things are made up of different com- 
pounds of elements. The starch of corn is a com- 
pound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Only a few 
of the eighty elements are necessary for the growth 
of plants and animals. The following elements are 
commonly found in plants, and the first ten are abso- 
lutely necessary for good plant growth : oxygen, 
hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, iron, potassium, phos- 
phorus, calcium, sulphur, magnesium, sodium, chlo- 
rine, and silicon. Oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen are 
invisible gases, so we do not sec them. Iron and sul- 
7)hur occur as free elements. Calcium is not ordinarily 
seen, but quicklime is either calcium or magnesium 
combined with oxygen. Silicon and oxygen combined 
make up the large part of sand. Salt is a compound 
of sodium and chlorine. A green plant is mostl/ 
water. Of the other substances, carbon makes up 
nearly one-half; nitrogen comes next; and there are 
smaller amounts of other elements. 

No plant can grow unless supplied with the first 
ten elements mentioned above. The soil furnishes an 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



13 



> 

o 

9 o 
I '^ 

a ^ 

- OS 
5-2^ 




a^: 




> ♦ 



14 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 

abundance of iron, sulphur, magnesium, sodium, chlo- 
rine, and silicon ; a farmer does not need to give spe- 
cial attention to these. The carbon dioxide gas of the 
air furnishes carbon ; water furnishes hydrogen and 
oxygen ; and the remaining elements, nitrogen, potas- 
sium, phosphorus, and calcium, are often insufficient 
in the soil, and must be supplied if a good crop is to 
grow. So these, particularly the first three, are the 
elements that the farmers buy in' their fertilizers. 

Now these little tablets, described in the note, 
contain the plant food of the soil and of the commer- 
cial fertilizers. To demonstrate the effect of fertiliz- 
ing the soil, proceed as follows : 

Fill two cans or flower-pots with clean sand. 
Plant six grains of wheat in each. Keep one moist 
with rain-water. Keep the other in the same condi- 
tion as to moisture, to which has been added plant 
food at the rate of two compressed tablets to each 
pint of water. 

At first there will be no difference in the growth, 
but in two or three weeks, when the food stored up 
in the grain is exhausted, the plants in the first can 
will grow but little, while those in the second will 
grow vigorously. Such substances, when applied to 
soil, are known as fertilizers. 

How to know what kind of plant food the soil 
needs is a difficult problem. Many times certain fertil- 
izers are added to the soil, but produce no results. 
It is important to know the needs of the soil with 
respect to an intended crop. Tests are explained in 
Farmers' Bulletins. The tests in Circular No. i8 are 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



15 



simple enough to be worked out by any eighth grade 
pupil. 

The further study of plant foods is continued in 
the next lesson. 




WHEAT GROWING IN NUTRIENT SOLUTION 
(Courtesy of E. P. Bigelow.) 



IG OXE HUNURED LESSONS IN 



LESSON VI 

Title.— Plant Foods. 

Season. — Any time. May be a Winter study. 

Object. — To study the effects of fertilizing compounds 

on the growth of wheat plants. 
Material. — -Manure, nitrate of soda, muriate of potash, 

and acid phosphate, ten flower-pots or tin cans, 

wheat, and about one-half bushel of poor soil. 

Any interested boy can get this soil even in the 

Winter time. 

FUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Have these commercial fertilizers before the 
class for observation. Fill each of the pots with soi!, 
and add plant food to the different pots as follows : 

1. Nothing. 

2. Nitrate of soda (one-half teaspoonful). 

3. Acid phosphate (one teaspoonful). 

4. Muriate of potash (one-fourth teaspoonful). 

5. Nitrate of soda and acid phosphate. 

6. Nitrate of soda and muriate of potash. 

7. Acid phosphate and muriate of potash. 

8. Nitrate of soda, acid phosphate, and muriate 
of potash. 

9. Same as No. 8, but double the amount of each. 
10. Stable manure. 

Mix the fertilizers into the soil ; then plant about 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 17 

a dozen grains of wheat in each pot. Label each pot 
with the names of the fertilizers used. Place the pots 
in a window or light place, and keep the soil moist- 
ened. When the wheat seedlings come up, thin out 
to the same number in each pot. Note the difference 
in the color of the leaves in each pot. Which fertil- 
izers give the greatest increase in growth? 

Make a complete record of this experiment in the 
note-book. 

Note. — Those who cannot readily secure the fer- 
tilizers for this lesson, may geti a sufficient amount for 
this experiment, by writing to the author, and enclos- 
ing 50 cents to cover cost of the material. 

Practical Problems. 



The usual prices of the common fertilizers is as 
follows : 

Nitrate of soda, $57.00 per ton. 

Acid Phosphate, $12.50 per ton. 

Muriate of potash, $42.00 per ton. 

How much would a pound of each cost? 

When a farmer speaks of a fertilizer as being 
2:8:10, he means that it contains 2% nitrogen, S% 
phosphoric acid, and 10% potash. 

How would 400 pounds of fertilizer of this type 
be made up? 

Dirt as a filler should be added to this to make 
up a ton of material to spread upon the soil. 



18 



ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



2 

At the College of AgTiculture, Cornell University, 
two tons of manure that had been weighed and ana'.- 
yzed were left exposed from April 25 to September 
22, with the following results: — 

April 25. Sept. 22 

Total weight 4000 lbs. 1730 lbs. 

Nitrogen 19.6 lbs 7 . ^2. lbs. 

Phosphoric acid 14.8 lbs. 7-79 lbs. 

Potash 36. lbs. 8.65 lbs. 

\\'hat was the value of the nitrogen, phosphoric 
acid, and potash in this manure on April 25, and on 
September 22? (Use the values given above). How 
much was lost? 

There are two ways to prevent such losses, — the 
manure may be hauled and spread on the land every 
few days, or it may be kept in covered sheds. 




A WASTE OP MANURE 
(Courtesy of IB. F. Johnson Pub. Co.) 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 19 

3 

A good fertilizer for timothy hay has been foim'J 
to be one containing 200 pounds of nitrate of soda. 
100 pounds of acid phosphate, and 50 pounds of mu- 
riate of potash, per acre. 

How much would this' cost per acre? 

What percentage of each would this fertilizer 
contain? 

About how much hay at the price in your neigh- 
borhood would be worth this much? 

(Data for this lesson was adapted from the Cor- 
nell Rural Leaflets.) 



20 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON VII 

Title. — Slopes and Drainage. 

Season. — Any season. 

Object. — To teach slopes by means of observation 

and to show their human interest. 
Material. — A hillside in view. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Take the class to observe a slope, and bring out 
the following points : — 

Where have you seen slopes before? 

When are slopes a good thing, and when not a 
good thing? 

What do you see on these slopes? What things 
are on other slopes? 

Would it be better to have trees on this slope? 
Why? 

Would it be well to plow this slope? Are there 
any washed places? 

Where does the slope wash most, where plowed 
or wooded? 

Explain how the forests hold the soil on the 
slopes. 

Have pupils show the slant of this slope with 
rulers. Ask them to find pictures of other slopes in 
their books. Make drawing sketches of slopes, or 
models in sand. 



ELEMENTAEY AGRICULTURE 21 



LESSON VIII 

Title.— The Root System of the Plant. 
Season. — Spring or Autumn. May be a Winter study. 
Object. — To learn the different kinds of plant roots. 
Material. — Whole plants of clover, grass, turnip, and 
as many others as can be gathered up. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

The root system of the plant consists of the entire 
group of roots upon the plant. There are two kinds 
of root systems : — 

(a) Tap-root, — central main root with smaller 
roots coming out from it. 

(b) Fibrous, — many roots of nearly the same 
size. 

Either of these two types may have either slender 
or fleshy modifications. 

Dig up a clover plant, and remove the soil from 
it. Observe that it has a strong central root which 
joins the stem. Make a drawing of this. 

Dig up a single grass plant, with as many of its 
roots as possible, and remove the soil from them. 
Observe the many similar roots projecting from the 
stem at or below the surface of the ground. Draw. 

Make a list of the common plants and classify 
them as to the character of the root system. 

The amount of food material taken in by the plant 



22 



ONE HUNDREO LESSONS IN 



depends largely upon the amount of root surface 
there is. 

Select some plant, as corn, for instance, carefully 
dig- a trench around it, and remove the ball oi 
earth, containing most of the roots. Remove and 
wash as much of the soil from the roots as possible. 
Remove and measure each root separately, and find 
the total length of the whole root system. 

Methods of cultivation should take into account 
that many roots, especially in the growing season, 
are near the surface. Deep cultivation will destroy 
all such roots, and to that extent cut ofT the food sup- 
ply of the plant. See Figure. 

Make the drawings of each of the types of roots 
referred to above, and in addition, the drawings of a 
fleshy tap-root, such as the turnip or radish. Fill out 
the followinsf table: — 



Slender tap-roots. 


Fleshy tap-roots. 


Fibrous root.= 


1. 
2 
3. 


1. 

1: 


1. 

2. 

8. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



23 



\?^ 








ROOT SYSTEM OF A PLANT 

Showing distribution of roots with reference to surface of the soil and 

soil moisture, and also effect of deep and shallow cultivation. 



24 ONE HUNDBED LESSONS IN 



LESSON IX 

Title. — Root-Hairs. 
Season. — At any time. 

Object. — To learn the use of the root-hairs of plants. 
Material. — Small seeds, wheat or radish, newspaper 
or blotting paper, and water. 

SITBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

The root-hairs are the absorbing organs of the 
plant. They have the power to transfer the water 
and the plant food from the soil to the rootlets. 

Put some small seeds, that have been soaked in 
water about twenty-four hours, between two layers 
of blotting paper. Keep the covering moist, and in 
two or three days roots will develop, covered with a 
thick fuzz of root-hairs. Make a drawing of these 
to show the zone and length. Select a seed with a 
straight root, and lay it aside on a moist blotting paper, 
and mark with a pencil the two extreme ends of the 
root-hair zone. Cover with a glass tumbler and set 
away for a few days. Note the change of position 
and method of growth of the root-hair zone. 

Note. — The root-hair may be considered as an 
elongated bag filled with a liquid denser than water. 
When two liquids of different densities are separated 
by a thin membrane, the less dense liquid tends to 
pass through the membrane, more rapidly than the 
denser liquid. This process is called osmosis. 

This principle may be illustrated, if desired by 
the teacher, from the common demonstration of the 
broken egg-shell and the glass of water. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



25 



Crack the large end of an egg and remove a part 
of the shell, being careful not to break the shell mem- 
brane. RenTove a small circle of the shell, about a 
half inch in diameter. Remove the shell in the same 
way from the small end, over an area equal to the 
diameter of a glass tube. Pierce the shell membrane 
at this end with a pin and glue a short glass tube 
exactly over the hole and broken shell of the small 
end. Now fill a wide mouthed bottle full of water, 
and place the egg on the bottle so that the exposed 
egg membrane of the large end remains below the 
surface of the water. 

In about an hour the contents of the egg will be 




TO SHOW OSMOSIS 



2G 



ONE* HUNDKEl) LESSONS IN 



seen rising" in the glass tube. Explain this action. 
Make a drawing of the apparatus. 

Root-hairs have the power of taking up water that 
adheres to soil particles. This fact is fundamental. If 
the water does not exist as films adhering to soil par- 
ticles, the root-hairs are unable to do their work. 




DIAGRAM OF A PLANT 
Showing its most important relations : sunlight, moisture, oxygen, 
and soil. (Courtesy of Prof. B. M. Davis.) 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 27 



LESSON X 

Title. — General Study of Germination. 

Season. — At any time. 

Object. — To learn the conditions necessary for the 

germination of seeds. 
Material. — Pea or radish seed, four or five pint glass 

fruit;-cans, and some cotton. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

(a) Place some seeds on thoroughly moistened 
cotton at the bottom of can No. i, and keep the seeds 
in a warm place and water, each day. 

(b) Place other seeds on dry cotton in the bot- 
tom of can No. 2, and do not water at any time. 

(c) Place some seeds on cotton, as before, in the 
can No. 3, and fill the can with water that has been 
boiled and cooled. Seal the can tightly, and keep in a 
warm place. 

When the seeds have germinated in (a), examine 
the seeds in the other cans, and compare with the 
growth of those in the first. 

What 'conditions for germination are necessary, 
as shown by these experiments? 

In the above experiment it is found that seels 
will not germinate without water. The question 
arises, does water enter the seed? 

Weigh two beans of nearly the same size. Put 



28 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 

one in water and leave the other dry. After 24 hours 
compare each as to v/eight and size. Draw a 
conclusion. 

Place a lima bean in water and observe the hourly 
changes in the appearance of the bean. Make a series 
of drawings to show these changes. 

It may be shown that seeds exert a strong force 
in their absorption of water and in germination. 

Fill a bottle with dry pea seeds, and add as much 
water as the bottle will hold. Cork tightly, and 
secure the stopper by means of a wire. Set away 24 
hours and note the result. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 29 



LESSON XI 

Title. — Structure of Seeds. 

Season. — At any time. 

Object. — To study the structure of typical seeds. 

Material. — I^ima beans, pen-knife, paper and pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

To facilitate the study of seeds they should be 
left in water over night. 

Observe the following points of the bean, and 
make a sentence note of each of the words in blacK 
type. 

1. Markings on the surface: 

(a) Scar or hilum where the seed was attached 
to the pod. 

(b) Nej.r the hilum a small opening, the 
micropyle. 

2. Remove the coat or testa. Near the hilum a 
small pointed body^ the caulicle, will be seen. 

Separate the halves or cotyledons, observe that 
the caulicle bears two small leaves, the plumule. 

The cotyledons, caulicle, and plumule constitute 
the embryo. 

Make a drawing of the whole bean showing these 
parts, and of the single cotyledon with the caulicle 
and plumule in place. 



30 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 

Study ihe grain of corn, making notes upon the 
following points : — 

I. The general shape. The embryo lies in the 
groove. 

Cut the grain lengthwise, at right angles to the 
flat surface, and make out the caulicle, plumule, and 
cotyledon. 

The hard outer portion is called, the endosperm. 

Make a drawing to show these parts. 

Always name every part of the drawing". 

Note. — All seeds except the seeds of conifers, are 
of one of these two types. In the bean, there are two 
cotyledons, ;ind the food material of the seed is stored 
in these cotyledons. 

In the corn there is only one cotyledon, and the 
food material is stored outside of the embryo, in a 
part called the endosperm. 



ELEMENTARY ACRICLLTURE 31 



LESSON XII 

Title. — Selecting Seed Corn in the Field and Storing 

It for the Winter. 
Season. — In the Autumn. 
Object. — To learn how to select the seed corn in tie 

field and how tjo store it until planting time. 
Material. — A field of ripened corn or several stalks 

brought into the school room for observation, 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

If possible, take the class into the field to select 
the corn, but if not, have an armful of stalks of corn 
brought into the school room. 

I. The lirst point to notice in selecting an ear for 
seed is its losition on the stalk. The ear should be 
set about mid-way up the stalk, not too near the bot- 
tom nor too near the top. Next, notice the shank that 
holds the ear. It should not be too long, so that it 
holds the ear at a considerable distance from the stalk. 
On the other hand it should not be so short that it 
causes the ear to stand upright against the stalk. 
The ear should come from the stalk, slightly bending 
downward at the tip. See the illustration given. 

The stalk should be of medium size, strong and 
tapering. 

II. The next point to observe, is the general 
shape and development of each ear selected. For 



32 



OXE HUXDRED LESSONS IN 



hasty seleciion in the field, be governed by the fol- 
lowing points : — 

1. Length of ear, between 8 and lo inches. 

2. Circumference of ear, about three-fourths the 
length. 

3. Rows of grains straight and running well out 
to the tip and butt of the ear. Grains well shaped 
and firmly set in place, deeply dented, and all of the 
same puritv of color. 




A GOOD STALK OP CORN 
(Courtesy of B. F. Johnson Pub. Co.) 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 33 

Governsid by all these points in the selection of 
the ear, the student or farmer may select as much as 
is needed for his seed, and prepare to store it for the 
winter. 

III. It is better to select more than is needed, so 
that the best type of ears may be chosen at planting 
time. 

In storing- the corn, it should either be hung by 
the husks torn back from the ear, or placed in racks 
made of narrow strips with spaces between. In any 
case, the corn should be stored in dry, well-ventilated 
places, in such a way that there may be a free circula- 
tion of air about each ear. 

For a school-room method, forty or fifty ears 
might be hung in the attic or in the room for that 
matter, to be used later in corn-scoring and in the ger- 
minating tests. 

For the storing, scoring, and final selection of 
seed corn, ibe use of a special farm laboratory build- 
ing is strongly advised. Such a building on the farm 
would facilitate many important operations, and make 
possible many others that would benefit the farmer's 
business. 



34 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON XIII 

Title. — Scoring Seed Corn. 
Season. — Winter or early Spring. 
Object. — To learn how to judge ears of corn. 
Material. — An ear of corn for each member of the 
class, paper and pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Ten ears of corn are usually scored for each sam- 
ple of corn judged, but in this case, perhaps one ear 
for each pupil will be sufficient for a lesson. If time 
and material permit, it would be well for each pupil 
to score ten ears. 

The following score-card is used by the Indiana 
Corn Growers' Association. Let each pupil copy the 
score-card in the permanent note-book, and grade his 
ear of corn on each point. The number opposite each 
of the twelve points, represents the perfect grade. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 




TYPES OF BUTTS AND TIPS OF EARS OF CORN 

No. 4 is a good tip. No. 11, a good butt. 

(Courtesy of Purdue University.) 



3G 



ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



Name of variety Table No . 

Name of Scorer Sample No. 









1. 


Truencss to 
Type or Breed 
Characteristics 


10 


2. 


Shape of Ears 


5 


3. 


Color of Grain and Cob 


10 


4. 


Vitality or Seed 
Condition 


10 


5. 


Tips of Ears 


5 


6. 


Butts of Ears 


5 


7. 


Kernel Uniformity 


10 


8. 


Kernel Shape 


10 


9. 


Length of Ears 


5 


10. 


Circumference of Ears 5 


11. 


Space between 
Rows and Kernels 


10 


12. 


Proportion of 
Corn to Cob 


15 



Total ----- 100 



4 I 5 



6 7 



, ...|. 



8 I 9 I 10 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 37 

Explanation of the Score-card. 

1. Trueness to type or breed. Ten points perfect. 
The ear should be true to the breed character- 
istics in size, shape, color, shape of kernel, etc. 

2. Shape of ear. 5 points perfect. 

The ear should be full and strong in the middle, 
and should not taper too rapidly towards the tip. 
Rows should be straight. 

3. Color of grain and cob. 10 points perfect. 
The color should be true to the variety, and free 

from mixture. AVhite corn should have white cobs, 
and yellow corn, red cobs. Cut about one point for 
five or six colored^ grains. 

4. Vitality or seed condition. 10 points perfect. 
The ear should be well matured, firm, and sound. 

The germ should be large, fresh, and vigorous looking. 

5. Tips of ears. 5 points perfect. 

The tip should be regular and not too tapering. 
Tip should be well covered, with straight rows of 
of regular kernels. Cut one-half point for tips ex- 
posed one inch. 

6. Butts lof ears. 5 points perfect. 

The rows of kernels should extend in regular 
order over the end of the cob, leaving a depression 
when the shank is removed. 

7. Kernel uniformity. 10 points perfect. 

The kernels should be uniform in size, color, 
shape, and indentation, and true to the variety type. 

8. Kernel shape. 10 points perfect. 

The kernels should be deep and so shaped that 
their edges touch from tip to crown. The tips of the 
kernels should be full and strong. 



38 



ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 39 

9. Length of ear. 5 points perfect. 

The length should conform to the standard for 
the variety used. From eight to ten inches is the 
usual standard length. Cut one-half point for each 
inch of deficiency. 

10. Circumference of ears. 5 points perfect. 
The circumference should be in proportion to the 

length, that is. about three-fourths the length, meas- 
ured at one-third the distance from butt to tip. For 
each inch deficiency or excess, cut ^ point. 

11. Space between rows and kernels. 10 points 
perfect. 

The furrows between rows should be wide 
enough to allow the ear to dry out readily, but not so 
wide as to lose in proportion of corn to cob. Much 
space between kernels is highly objectionable. 

There should be not less than 16 rows, and 6 or 
7 grains to an inch in each row. 

12. Proportion of corn to cob. 15 points perfect. 
The proportion should be determined by weight. 

The proportion of corn to cob should not be less than 
Jo. Cut 15^% for each per cent below the standard. 



40 



ONE HUNDKED LESSONS IN 



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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 41 



LESSON XIV 

Title. — Selecting and Testing Seed Corn. 

Season. — March, April, or May. 

Object. — To teach the student how to select the ssed 

corn and make the germinating test. 
Materials. — Ten or twelve ears of corn as true to the 

following standard as possible : 

1. Good cylindrical shape, well rounded out at 
the tips and l)utts. 

2. Len.<th. about 8 to 12 inches, and circumfer- 
ence 6 to 9 inches, according to the type. 

3. Uniform color and size of grain, straight rows 
of kernels, filling up the furrows solid'.y. 

4. Cob. not too large in proportion to the ear. 
A germinating box as described below. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

The teacher should have before the class as many 
ears of corn as convenient for this lesson. .\ hun- 
dred ears would be the desired number. 

Take a shallow box and partly fill it with fine 
sand. Thoroughly moisten the sand. Over the sand 
place a cloth which has been checked into 100 two- 
inch squares with an indelible pencil, or better, with 
ink. Number each square from i to 100, ten sciuares 
in each row, and ten rows. 

Now take each ear separately and remove five 



42 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 

kernels, taking them from different parts of the car. 
Take one from the butt, three from the middle, and 
one from the tip. Turn the ear each time so as not 
to get them from the same row. Place the kernels in 
the numbered square, a square for each ear, and lay 
the ear aside and number it to correspond with the 
square. Cover the kernels on the squares with a 
moist cloth. Over this place a layer of moist sand. 
Keep the sand moist and watch daily for the germi- 
nations. The ear that does not show all the five ger- 
minating in a few days, should not he planted in the 
field. 

This is a very impor!:ant and practical lesson, and 
one that every farmer bov shou'd work out. 

Have the pupils make a drawing of the germina- 
ting box, and write a record of the lesson and its 
results. 

Emphasize the fact that this work could be done 
by the farmer at a time when he is not so busy with 
necessary work, and that this is the only sure test of 
germination. If all the farmers' seeds would germi- 
nate, their rrops would be increased many fold. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



O > 
o 

en fu 

o g 

^^ 

c O 
a 



2 ffl 




44 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



A GOOD BAR OP CORN 
(Courtesy of B. F. Johnson Pub. Co.) 




A POOR EAR OF CORN 
(Courtesy of B. F. Johnson Pub. Co.) 



ELEMENTARY At RICULTURE 



45 




GOOD EARS 
(Courtesy of Purdue University.) 



4G 



ONE IirX!)!!KI) I.ESSOXS IN 










ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



47 




RACKS FOR STORING SEED CORN 
(Courtesy of Purdue University.) 



48 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON XV 

Title. — Growing Musk-melons. 

Season. — Spring months. 

Object. — To learn how to grow good musk-melons. 

Materials. — Good melon seeds, sod, spade, and boxes. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

This lesson may be oivcn in the school-room early 
in April. Have at hand melon seeds of the l^est qual- 
ity. Before time for the agriculture class, send two 
boys out with a spade to cut several turfs of sod, 
about six inches square, as many pieces as you mean 
to have hills of melon. If the grassy side is firmlv^ 
matted, slij^^htly loosen the fibres, but not enough to 
allow the turf to fall apart. Place the sod, bottom 
side up, in a shallow box of wood or pasteboard ; if 
the earth is not thick enough, add a few handfuls of 
good mealy soil. Plant about six or eight seeds in 
this soil. Place in a sunny Avindow and keep warm 
and moist. 

This will constitute the first part of the lesson, 
but the germinating seeds will keep up the interest 
in the experiment for many days. When the green 
seed-leaves have freed themselves from the shell, no- 
tice which are the thriftiest plants, and remove all but 
the best two. Care for these tenderly, and they will 
thrive well, free from frost and the striped beetle. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTUBE 49 

They may safely acquire three or four true leaves, and 
be five or six inches tall, before they are planted out 
of doors. If possible, the rest of this experiment 
should be done in the school garden. If there is no 
school garden, and school is to close before Ma)'-, the 
children may take the boxes home, and set the melon 
plants in the home garden as follows : — 

When the w^arm late May-days come, dig holes 
about eight inches deep and six feet apart in the sun- 
niest part of the garden ; put in the bottom of each 
hole a spadeful of old well-rotted manure ; cover this 
with two inches of sand or fine soil ; and on this place 
the sod with the growing melons, so gently that they 
will not know they have been moved. The sod should 
be level with the ground, and well firmed in place. See 
that the plants never suffer from thirst. Keep the 
weeds pulled, and stir the surface soil about the hill 
often, until the vines begin to run. 

When each vine has set about a half-dozen mel- 
ons, pinch off all blossoms that form, and also the 
tips of the branches, so that all plant food may go 
into the melons first chosen. 

Squash, cucumber, pumpkins, and water-melons, 
may also be grown in the same way. 



50 ONE IIUNDKEI) LESSOXS IX 



LESSON XVI 

Title. — Garden Making. 

"The garden is a lovesome thing", God wot ; 

Rose plot. 
Fringed pool, 
Ferned grot, 
The veriest school of peace; 
And yet the fool 

Contends that God is not in gardens. 
Not in gardens ! When the eve is cool ! 

Xay, bnt I have a sign, 
'Tis very snre God walks in mine." 
Season. — April and May. 
Object. — To teach children how to make a school or 

home garden, and to form the garden habit. 
Material. — Spade, hoe. yard-rule, rake, and mixed 
fertilizer or compost. 

SiJBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

If not practicable to have a garden with indi- 
vidnal or gronp plots, select a space on the school 
grounds, or near by, on which to make a sample gar- 
den, as a demonstration lesson from which the pupils 
may learn how to make their home gardens. 

Select a space of rich soil, about 4 feet wide by 16 
feet long, and thoroughly clean away all weeds and 
trash from this plot. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 51 

Spade up the ground as deeply as possible. 
About a pound of commercial fertilizer may now be 
sprinkled over the plot, or a few shovelfuls of well- 
rotted manure may be worked into the ground. Rake 
over the plot and break up all the clods. It is a good 
plan to go over the ground with the hands, crumbling 
the soil as fine as meal. I^evel the bed up slightly 
higher than the rest of the ground. Stake the four 
corners and mark off a sharp, clean-cut edge for the 
bed, and make a neat clean path around it. 

The garden is now ready for planting. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 53' 



LESSON XVII 

Title. — Planting the Garden. 

Season. — Spring. 

Object. — To teach the pupils how to plant the seed in 

the garden. 
Material. — Seeds, measuring-rule, and marker. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

In plenty of time before these lessons are to be 
given, the teacher should take a penny collection from 
the pupils, and send to the Home Gardening Associ- 
ation, Cleveland, Ohio, and get seed packages. Many 
of the seeds might easily be obtained at the homes of 
the children. Under the direction of the teacher, two 
or three of the pupils should mark off the garden for 
planting, and assist in the planting, while all the rest 
of the children observe. They may then return to 
their home plots and do the work themselves more 
intelligently. 

The accompanying diagram should be drawn on 
the board, and copied by the pupils, to a scale of 
inches, in their permanent note-books, before going 
to the ofarden for this lesson. 



54 



ONE HU.\'I)RED LESSONS IN 



GARDEN PLOT. 
Scale : One-fourth inch equals one foot. 



Sweet corn, three rows. 
(Three grains in each place.) 



Dwarf bunch beans, two rows. 
Potatoes, two hills. 



* * * 


* * * 


* * * 


t****ttt*l 


i. ******** 


** •* 


** ** ** 




***************** 


**!,**** f-i******** 


'* * "* *~*~*^*^* ~* 


**v****** 


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***************** 


*»..******»>•.. S » s H * 


********* .V f * « * * * » 


***************** 


**************,*** 


***************** 


_ 



Cucumbers, three hills. 

Optional. 

Optional. 

Optional. 

Beets, three row.=. 
Dwarf peas, two rows. 
Onion sets, two rows. 
Radishes, three rows. 

Lettuce, three rows. 
Flower seeds. 



Mark off the furrows about two inclies deep 
across the l^ed as indicated by the diagram. Place 
the seeds in the furrow, as shown by the star marks 
in the diagram. Cover with the soil and press it 
down firmly with the hands. Now we are ready for 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 55 

the seeds to grow. Many valuable nature-stud}^ les- 
sons may be given in the school as the seeds begin to 
germinate. Try to create a spirit of appreciative in- 
terest in the growing plants and a personal pride in 
the care of the child's home garden. As the garden 
grows, weeds must be pulled, insects watched for, 
and replantings made if necessary. Upon the skillful 
presentation of these lessons, the pupils should be 
able to make home gardens and plant and care for 
them successfully. 

There should be some instruction in the growing 
of ])lants in every school-room in the state. Garden- 
ing is recognized as one of the best all-round helps 
in the education of the child. There should be a well- 
organized school garden in every public school in the 
country. Gardening is a very excellent and healthful 
habit to form. It will make stronger and better men 
and women. It will be a resource for them through 
all the coming years. 

School gardens teach appreciation of nature, re- 
spect for the property of others, self-reliance, helpful- 
ness, patience, respect for labor, and habits of indus- 
try. They furnish useful employment as well as 
pleasant amusement for children who might seek di- 
version in idle haunts or questionable activities. In 
garden work, children learn to see what they look at, 
and understand what they see ; they learn skill with 
their hands, systematic methods, business experience, 
and knowledge of gardening, plants, fruit, insects, 
and birds. 

The following table is a good device to use in con- 



56 



ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



nection with this lesson. Have pupils record observa- 
tions made in their gardens under the following heads 
placed at the top of the page of the note-book : — 



When 
Planted 



How Deep 



Distance 
Aral I 



When 
Appear 



Injuries 




SCHOOL GARDEN OP WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY, NORMAL. 
DEPARTMENT SUMMER SESSION 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 57 



LESSON XVIII 

Title. — Tree Planting. 

Season. — Spring or Autumn. 

Object. — To learn how to set out a tree. 

Material. — A young tree, a spade, and a knife, 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

In a rural school all the classes may participate 
in this lesson. 

The young tree, either a fruit or forest tree, hav- 
ing been procured, is on the ground, ready for plant- 
ing. Have some of the pupils dig the hole, a little 
deeper than the one from which the tree came. Al- 
low ample room for all the roots. While this is being 
done, the teacher may review all the reasons for the 
methods employed in digging out the tree. Before 
placing the young tree, trim away all the injured and 
broken roots. Place some fine surface soil in the bot- 
tom of the hole, and with the hands work fine soil 
about the smaller roots. Bring out the reason for all 
this. Fill the earth about the roots carefully, and 
pack down well. If the soil is too dry, a small pail of 
water may be poured about the roots before all the 
earth is put into the hole. Round up the surface so 
that no water will stand next to the tree, and cover 
with a fine mulch of dust. The inverted sod may be 
placed on top. Now the tree must be trimmed back 
so that the disturbed balance between roots and 



58 ONE HCXDREU LESSONS IN 

branches may be restored. Make this point clear. 
Let the pupils do all the work. Have the pupils make 
a wish about the tree, and 3^ou have concluded a les- 
son that will be full of interest ; and if you have been 
enthusiastic in this exercise, a real and permanent in- 
terest in trees will have been created amono- man\- 
in the class. 

"\\'ho does his duty 
Is a question too complex for me ; 
Rut he, I venture the suggestion, 
Does part of his who p'ants a tree." — Lowell, 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 59 



LESSON XIX 

Title. — Planting a Farm Wood-Lot. 

Season. — April, May, or October. 

Object. — To teach the pupils how to plant a small 
nursery for the wood-lot and to realize the pos- 
sibilities of such plantings. 

Material. — One hundred two-year-old seedlings of 
the Catalpa speciosa. These may be obtained 
from the Thos. Meehan and Sons Nursery, 
Dreshertown, Pa., at one cent a tree, and the nec- 
essary money could be easily raised in the 
school. A plot of ground near the school, size 
30 feet by 30 feet. 

SUB.JECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

This lesson can be done successfully if the 
teacher will send for the seedlings, and see to it that 
a plot of ground, as mentioned above, is plowed or 
spaded up in preparation for the planting. Lay otf 
the ground in furrows three feet apart. Cross furrow 
these at right angles, the same distance apart. A/Vhere 
the furrows cross, a seedling is to be planted. Dig 
out a hole about six or seven inches deep for 
each seedling, and plant each one as directed for the 
single tree in Lesson 18. These little trees will now 
be three feet apart, and after about three years may 
be thinned to six feet apart by transplanting the trees 



CO ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 

and extending the grounds. This lesson is entirely 
practical, and may be conducted in any country, vil- 
lage, or city school. 

Have the pupils draw a plot of the grounds and 
write a description of the work of this lesson in their 
agriculture note-books. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 61 



LESSON XX 

Title. — An Excursion to the Woods. 

Season. — Fall or Spring. 

Object. — To study some elementary forestry condi- 
tions, and to learn the names of some forest trees. 

Material. — Note-books and pencils, with the pupils 
in the woods. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

In this lesson the teacher may take the whole 
school for a walk to the woods. The smaller children 
will not lose any time that could be better spent, and 
the class in agriculture may make the following ob- 
servations, under the teacher's directions : — 

Note (i) the comparative temperatures within 
and without the forest. 

2. The rich humus soil of the forest floor, and 
how the roots and leaf mould hold the moisture and 
prevent washing. Point out examples of washes 
where the forest has been cut away, and explain how 
the soil is carried to the streams, and its effects upon 
them. 

3. Find trees of virgin growth and also the sec- 
ond growth. Note any dangerous fire-traps. 

4. If a freshly cut stump or log can be found, 
count the rings of growth and determine the age of 
the tree. 



C2 OME IIUNDKEl) LESSONS IN 

5. Make a few estimations of the diameter and 
heights of the largest trees. Pupils might calculate 
the number of cubic feet of timber in a large tree, and 
by squaring the diameter in inches, minus 4, it be- 
comes board measure, in a 16 foot log. 

6. Make a list in the note-book of the names of 
all the trees you can. 

Wdien the pupils return from the woods. ha\'e 
tiiem use tlie above points as topics to write of the 
excursion in their permanent note-books. 

By referring to Roth's First Book of Forestry, 
or to Pinchot's Primer of Forestry, many valuable 
lessons may be continued in this work. 

(See Appendix.) 



ELKMENTAKY AC.IUCXTLTURE 



G3 



LESSON XXI 

Title. — Improving the Soil. 

Season. — A lesson for winter text-book study or for 
spring observation. 

Object. — To learn the different operations upon the 
soil, and the value of each. 

Material. — Note-book and pencil. Fields for obser- 
vation. 



SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Copy the following table in the notc-lxjok, and 
learn to write it approximately from memory : — 

Soil Improvement Methods, 



Operations!. 

1. Plowing. 

2. Tilling. 


Implements 
Plow.s. 

Hops, rakes, 
cultivators, 
harrows, and 
clod-crushers. 



Value and Improvement. 



fit condition for 
so that plant 



Puts land 
planting. 

Pulverizes soil so 
food is available. 

Turns under manures, green- 
crops, and trash. 

Deepens soil, and increas--es ca- 
pacity for holding water, and 
for root extension. 

Allows weather to act on the 
soil. 

Makes a bed for seeds. 

Covers the seeds. Pulverizes 
the ground. 

Establishes and maintains an 
earth mulch. Destroys weeds. 



G4 



ONE HUNDEED LESSONS IN 



Operations. linpltiiieiits. Value and Improvement. 

3. Rolling. Rollers, "Crushes clods." Smooths the 

drags, or ground for seed, 

flos-ts. Hastens germination of seeds 

by firming the soil and bring- 
ing moisture to the surface 
J through capillarity. 
Compacts the soil otherwise too 
loose and open. Puts the land 
in a condition so that other 
tools can act efficiently. 

Facilitates marking out the 
land. 

Checks growth of fruit plants 

in orchards. 
Prevents land from washing and 
puddling. 

\ Holds rain until it can soak into 

the soil. 
Causes soil to dry out early in 
■ the spring. 

Lessens injury from frosts. Adds 
available nitrates to the soil 

if a legume crop. 

5. Fertilizing. Manures, Man~ures supply both~humus and 

lime, ashes, plant food. 

Pot^E^sh, Lime counteracts the acidity of 

phosphate, the soil. 

nitrate, etc. Commercial fertilizers add avail- 

able plant food where needed. 



4. Cover-cropping. Clover, 
alfalfa, 
cow-peas, 
vetch, etc. 



Note.— The best tillage of the soil consists of 
deep plowing, thorough harrowing, and pulverizing of 
the clods, and shallow cultivation. This renders the 
plant food available, and provides a mulch to retain 
the soil moisture. With proper tillage, the need of an 
artificial fertilizer is lessened. 

A visit to the fields to see these operations, and 
to an implement store for first-hand information, is ad- 
visable in this lesson. 

The teacher should discuss with the pupils all the 
values and improvements suggested in the table 
above. 



ELEMENTAKY AGBICULTUBE 65 



LESSON XXII 

Title. — Rotation of Crops. 

Season. — Any season. May be a Winter study. 
Object. — To learn methods and value of crop rotation. 
Material. — Note-book and pencil. Field for obser- 
vation. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

It may not be feasible for the school to work out 
this lesson by actual experiment, but the class should 
make an excursion to fields where rotation of crops is 
practiced, and there understand the steps in the 
process. 

If the students will memorize the two following 
methods of crop rotation, which have proven success- 
ful, they will have been well repaid for the study of 
this lesson : — 

(a) I. Sow clover seed in the wheat, March or 
April. 

2. Harvest the wheat as usual, and allow the 
clover to grow all Fall. It may be used for pasture to 
some extent. 

3. Plow up the clover sod in the following April. 

4. Plant to corn. 

5. Sow wheat in the corn in the Autumn season. 

6. Sow clover seed in the wheat again, in March 
or April, and thus continue the rotation as before. 



CG 



ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



(b). If the land is much reduced, or of poor soil 
the rotation begins and proceeds as in (a), except at 
No. 3, instead of plowing up the clover for corn in the 
spring, allow it to stand another season. A hay crop 
may then be harvested in July, and a seed crop again 
in the Fall, after which proceed as in part (a). 

Make a note-book tabulation as follows : — 

Rotation of CRors. 



Series a. 1 Series b. Series c. 



Clover 
Corn 
Wheat 
Clover 



Clover I 

Hay and 1 Clover 

seed I Corn 

Corn [ Oa*^s 

Wheat Wheat 

Clover Clover 



Series d. Values of Rotation. 



Clover 

Corn 

Potato 

Wheat. 

Clover 



Preserves food supply. 
Increases • food supply. 
Eradicates weeds. 
Exterminates insects. 
"Enlarges the resources. 



Note. — There are two theories explaining the 
need of rotation of crops. One states that the plant 
returns a poison to the soil, rendering it unfit for the 
growth of that species, but that the soil is not ex- 
hausted of plant food. The other holds that a contin- 
uous growing of the same plant robs the soil of the 
elements necessary for the growth of that species, but 
not for a different species. 

In either case, rotation of crops pays. It not onl) 
makes better farms, but better men. The fertility of 
the soil is maintained, and a profitable yield forth- 
coming at all seasons. A wise use of the soil does not 
rob it of its fertility. "■ 



ELEMEXTARY AGRICULTUliE 



G7 



LESSON XXIII 

Title. — Growing Alfalfa. 

Season. — March or April. 

Object. — To learn how to grow alfalfa and to observe 
its relation to soil fertility. 

Material. — Four square rods of ground, eight quarts 
of lime, one quart of oats or barley, and three- 
fourths pound of alfalfa. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

If the required amount of land cannot be obtained 
on the school grounds, a farmer living near the school 
will probably be glad to furnish the land. Select the 
site in any plowed-up ground, lay out the following 
plats, each one rod square : — 



1. 


3. 
INOCri,.\TION. 


LIME. 
2. 


IJ?vIE. 

4. 

INOCUI.ATION. 



Drive stakes at each corner of each plat. 



G3 ONE HUXDKED LESSONS IN 

Sow about eight quarts of lime on plats 2 and i, 
four quarts on each plat, which is equivalent to about 
twenty bushels on an acre. Obtain some soil from a 
place where alfalfa or sweet clover is growing, and 
scatter a few quarts of this on plats 3 and 4, being 
careful not to get it on the other plats. This is in- 
oculating the soil with the bacteria of the alfalfa. 
Then sow a light seeding of oats or barley over all the 
plats, a little more than a quart is sufficient. Then 
sow about % of a pound of alfalfa over the four plats 
and rake it in. Be careful not to rake any of the soil 
from the inoculated plats into the others. 

No further care need be given the plats until the 
barley or oats is headed out, when it should be mowed 
off above the tops of the alfalfa plants. The oats or 
barley should not be allowed to mature in the alfalfa. 
School may be closed before this experiment is fin- 
ished ; but the teacher should appoint a committee to 
study and report the observations of the summer, and 
all living near should be encouraged to watch the ex- 
periment. This is getting Jlessons from the real source 
and not from books alone. 

Draw the plats in the agricultural note-books, and 
answer the following questions: 

How soon does the barley or oats come up? The 
alfalfa? In six weeks observe the roots of the alfalfa 
in each plat. In which plats are swollen nodules 
found on the alfalfa roots? What is the effect of the 
lime and inoculation? Observe the difference in 
growth in the four different plats. 

The surest way to get alfalfa to grow on a poor 
soil is to manure the soil, cultivate it, and sow about 



ELEMEXTARY AGRICULTURE 



C9 



August the I St, applying lime and inoculation, if nec- 
essary. 

This work ma}- be carried on at the students' 
home if there are no plats for it near the school. The 
home work of these lessons is to be greatly encour- 
aged. 




ALFALFA 



70 ONE HUNDKED LES.SONS IN 



LESSON XXIV 

Title. — Treating Seed Potatoes to Prevent Scab. 

Season. — April or May. 

Object, — To learn how to rid seed potatoes of the 

scab. 
Material. — Scabby, potatoes, tub or barrel, sack, and 

one-third pint of formalin (formaldehyde). 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

This lesson given at a country school, at potato- 
plantini^ time, could be made a very beneficial one, 
both to the pupils and to the patrons who would be 
interested enough to co-operate. 

The day before the lesson is to be given, the 
teacher should ask some pupils to bring about a peck 
of the scabbiest potatoes that can be found. The 
teacher should see that the other materials are pro- 
vided for the lesson. 

Place the potatoes in a burlap sack. Into a tub 
or barrel pour five gallons of water. To this add about 
one-sixth of a pint of formalin. This can be purchased 
at any drug store at 40 cents a pint. Place the sack 
of potatoes in the tub of formalin solution. Allow 
them to soak one and one-half hour. 

(Experimental work of this lesson will have to 
end here. If there is a school garden, the work as 
outlined below should be continued at school ; if none. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



71 





"^S^ 












THE ROOTS AND TUBERS OF POTATO 
(Courtesy of B. F. Johnson Pub. Co.) 





A GOOU POTATO 



A fet^ABBY POTATO 



72 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 

the teacher should fully explain the rest, and call for 
volunteer pupils to complete the experiment at home 
and report upon it.) 

Remove the potatoes from the solution, and cut 
into pieces for planting, about two eyes to each piece. 
Do not put the potatoes back into a receptacle that 
has had in it scabby potatoes. The vessel to be used 
should be washed with the solution in the tub. 

Plant the treated tubers in rows by themselves, 
and mark with stakes the rows so planted. To show 
the comparative results of the treatment, plant the 
same number of scabby potatoes, and give both equal 
care and cultivation throughout the season. 

When the potatoes are ripe, dig the treated and 
untreated separately. Count the increase in the treat- 
ed potatoes. A careful record of this lesson should 
be kept, including the cost of treatment, the price of 
potatoes, and the total gain from the treatment, due 
to the increased value of the yield. 

It would be a good service to the district if pu- 
pils would bring all their scabby potatoes to the 
school to be treated, before planting. Any helpful 
co-operation between the school and the home is of 
incalculable value to both institutions. 



ELEMEXTARY AGRICULTURE 73 



LESSON XXV 

Title. — Biological Maps of Home Farms. 

Season. — Any. 

Object. — To teach the pupils how to map the farm 

and to make a study of biological and physical 

conditions there. 
Material. — Pencil and note-book. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Assign to groups of two or three pupils who live 
near each other, plots of ten or twenty acres on their 
home farm, and require the following outside work 
of each group : 

1. Make measurements of the tract of land al- 
lotted and draw a map of the same to an accurate 
scale. Place in this map the creeks, springs, build- 
ings, etc. 

2. Collect bottles of the different kinds of 
soil found on the tract, and bring to school. 

3. Make a list of all the useful plants growing 
on the plot. 

4.. Make a list of all the weeds or useless plants 
known on the plot. 

5. Make a list of all the domestic and wild ani- 
mals seen. 

6. Make a list of all the birds and insects ob- 
served from time to time. 



74 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 

This work may continue through many weeks, 
and the pupils should keep a neat and accurate 
record in their permanent note-books of the obser- 
vations on their tracts of land. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 75 



LESSON XXVI 

Title. — Spraying for Codling Moth and Fungous Dis- 
eases. 

Season. — When the apple blossoms fall, and two weeks 
later. 

Object. — To learn how to spray apple trees. 

Material. — Spray pump. 3 lbs. copper sulphate (blue 
stone), 6 lbs. of unslacked lime. 1^/2 lbs. lead arse- 
nate (disparene), and 50 gallons of water, 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

This lesson may seem impractical for school 
work, but it is so important that the teacher shoull 
make every effort to have a demonstration made at 
the school, before the class. If any farmer in the dis- 
trict has a spray pump, he no doubt would be willing^ 
to loan it for this lesson. The spray mixture can be 
bought for about 75 cents. If a. five-gallon knapsack 
spray-pump can be borrowed, the proportions of the 
mixture given below can be reduced to one-tenth of 
the material. A bucket spray pump could be pur- 
chased at very little cost, and would be well worth 
the price to the school for experimental purposes, and 
encourage the practice of this very important work. 
Two good machines of larger and more expensive 
make are, the Pomona, and the Fruit-all. Allow the 
"blue-stone"' to dissolve over night, hanging in a cloth 



ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 




THE CODDLING MOTH 
(Courtesy of B. F. Johnson Pub. Co.) 




SPRAYED AND UNSPRAYED BRANCHES 
(Courtesy of B. F. Johnson Pub. Co.) 



ELEMENTABY AGRICULTURE 77 

sack in three gallons of water. Dissolve the lime 
in five or six gallons of water. After the two have 
dissolved, in their separate vessels, pour the two solu- 
tions slowly together into a barrel, and dilute to fifty 
gallons. Now dissolve the one-and-one-half pounds 
of lead arsenate, and slowly and thoroughly stir the 
solution into the barrel with the rest. The mixture 
is now ready for the spray pump. 

Force the spray thoroughly into every .leaf, stem, 
and fruit of the apple tree. 

If this operation is repeated in about two weeks 
after the blossoms fall, the trees and fruit will be 
saved from codling moths and fungous- diseases, and 
the apple trees will yield a hundred-fold. This hag 
been proven most forcibly in the orchards of Mr. G. 
C. Starcher, of Berlin, Lewis, Co., West Virginia. Old 
and formerly barren trees, have yielded hundreds of 
dollars' worth of fine apples in a few years, and his 
fruit has taken first and second prizes at National and- 
state exhibits. This same spray mixture can be used 
at any season upon any leaf-chewing insects that are 
defoliating the plants. Applications to the State Ex- 
periment Station should be made for the latest spray- 
calendars. 



78 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON XXVII 

Title.— Budding. 

Season. — Early Autumn or early Spring. 

Object, — To learn how to propagate fruit trees by 

budding. 
Material. — Sharp knife, raffia or string, and fruit trees. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Budding is such a simple and important farm 
operation that every boy and girl should know how 
to do it. Think of changing the little apple-trees in 
the orchard to any variety of apples you wish ! This 
is exactly what budding is for. This change can be 
made on branches as small as lead pencils, or as 
large as the thumb. The nurseryman buds the little 
trees a few inches above the surface of the ground. 
The fruit grower top buds the little trees, two or 
three feet above the ground. 

The class may go to a young orchard near the 
school for this lesson, or several branches of young 
trees may be brought into the school-room. 

I. Choose the place for the bud. Make a hori- 
zontal cut across the stem, just through the bark. 
Then beginning in the middle of the horizontal cur, 
draw the knife straight down making a vertical cut. 
(See figure b). Twist the knife sidewise before draw- 
ing it out, in order to loosen the bark. The stock is 
now readv for the bud. 



KLErMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



79 






BUDDING 
(Courtesy of Cornell Leaflets.) 



80 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 

2. Take the buds from bearing trees of the vari- 
ety you wish. Cut twigs tliat have grown this year. 
The .leaves are still on them. At the base of each 
leaf, and between the leaf and the branch, you will 
find a little bud. This is the bud to insert into the 
tree which has been prepared as above described. 
, 3. Cut the leaf off about a quarter of an inch 

above the bud, thus leaving the leaf stock as a handle 
for the bud. The end buds should not be used. Be- 
ginning with a sharp knife below the bud, cut up- 
wards just through the bark, beneath the bud and 
above it about half an inch. Be sure to cut through 
the bark, but not into the wood. (See figure a). 

4. Push the bud down into the cut made into 
the stock, using the leaf stalk as a handle. Be sure 
that the entire bud is shoved into the incision. If a 
portion of bark should project above, cut it off. (See 
figure c). 

5. The bud is now ready for tying. Raffia is the 
best material to use, but ordinary string may be used. 
Begin below the bud and wrap the wound entirely, 
except where the bud is. Wrap it snugly and tightly, 
and then tie securely. (See figure d) 

6. In two or three weeks the bud will have 
"stuck", and the string may then be removed. The 
bud will remain dormant in the winter and begin to 
grow in the next spring. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 81 



LESSON XXVIII 

Title. — Grafting. 

Season. — Spring or Autumn. A good Winter lesson^ 
Object. — To learn how to propagate fruit by grafting. 
Material. — Sharp knife, grafting wax, strings, and 
fruit trees. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND- METHOD 

By a process ?%nown as grafting, you can force 
trees to produce whatever variety of apples you desite. 
There are two nt^thods of grafting.-^-the tongue or 
whip graft and the cleft graft. " .. ..' 

I. The tongue graft. , 

If the class 'can not plarL to go to an orchard for 
this lesson, bring several branches of apple trees into 
the school room. Choose a stock upon which you in- 
tend to graft the desired variety. Then select from 
the variety desired, ,^ twig that is about the thickness 
of the yolmg ,tree at .the point where you wish to 
graft. Be careful to select the shoot or scion from a 
healthy part of the tree. Cut the scion and stock as you 
■vv'Ould the mouth parts of a boy's whistle. Join the 
cut end of the scion to the cut end of the stock. When 
you join them, notice that under the bark of each is 
a thin layer of soft, juicy tissue. This is called tha 
cambium. To make a successful graft, the cambium 
in the scion must exactly join the cambium in the 
stock. 



&2 



OM': lILNDHEr) LESSONS IN' 




CLEFT GRAFTING 
A — Prepared scion ; B — Scions in place ; C — Graft waxed over. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



After fitting the parts closely together, bind them 
with string that has been coated with grafting wax. 
This wax is made of equal parts of tallow, beeswax, 
and linseed oil. Smear the wax over the whole joint, 
and make sure that it is air-tight. February or March 
is perhaps the best time to do this work. 
2. The cleft graft. 

For the grafting of larger scions or for the graft- 
ing of scions of various kinds of apple-trees upon the 
branches of one stock, the cleft-graft method is used. 
The stock is cut square'y across, and the scions, either 
one or two, are cut into wedges at the end, and slipped 
into a cleft of the stock. The cambium of the scions 
must come in contact with the cambium of the stock, 
as in the former method. After the scions are forced 
into the cleft of the stock, the whole exposed surface, 
and the cleft left open, should be covered with the 
grafting wax. (See figure.) 

Trees -may be budded or grafted upon one an- 
other only when they are nearly related. There are 
some rare exceptions to this rule. 

Have pupils write a description of these methods 
and make drawings of the grafts. Each pupil in the 
class Sihould make these grafts for himself, and if pos- 
sible, the work should be done in the orchard. 



84 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON XXIX 

Title. — Spraying for San Jose Scale and other Suck- 
ing insects. 

Season. — During the dormant season of plants. 

Object. — To learn how to spray for San Jose Scale 
and other sucking insects. 

Material. — Spray pump, /2 pound of hard soap, 2 gal- 
lons of kerosen. water, and the fruit-tree with the 
scale. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

With this lesson, as with a preceding one, it 
may not be possible in the rural school to demonstrate 
the actual work of spraying, but the teacher should 
make every efiGprt to have the school officials purchase 
a spray-pump in order to demonstrate these important 
lessons. 

The San Jose scale is one of the most dreaded en- 
emies of the fruit-tree. It is an illegal act to sell fruit- 
trees affected with it. This insect is very minute, yet 
it spreads so rapidly that it soon covers the branches 
of the trees with a whitish scale, beneath which is 
the living pest, sucking the life from the tree. Prob- 
ably the best thing to do when one finds that the scale 
has found his fruit-trees, is to promptly burn the tree 
affected. By vigorous spraying with kersone emul- 
sion of 15% strength, one may keep them in check. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 85 

If possible the teacher may have the class help to 
mix up the emulsion, either on a large scale, as given 
in the formula below, or in small quantities with the 
same proportions. The usual formula is as follows : 

Kerosene Emulsion. 

Hard soap (in line shavings) % pound. 

Water i gallon 

Kerosene 2 gallons. 

Dissolve the soap in boiling water, add kerosene 
to the hot water, churn the mixture to a creamy con- 
sistency, and in order to get a 15% oil emulsion, add 10 
or 15 gallons of water. The mixture is now ready 
for the spray-pump. 

For a school-room demonstration, the following 
proportions may be made up : 

Soap I oz. 

Water i pt. 

Kerosene 2 pt. 

This proportion, diluted with two ga'lons of wa- 
ter, will make a spray which may be used on house 
or garden plants to rid them of plant lice, or other 
sucking bugs. 




SAN JOSE SCALE 



8G ONE HUXDEED LESSOXS IX 



LESSON XXX 

Title. — Collections of the Products of the Neighbor- 
hood. 

Season. — Autumn. 

Object. — To learn and classify the products of the 
neighborhood. 

Material. — All the material collected, bottles, strings, 
and labels. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Try to get small bundles of each of the grains 
raised in the community, viz., wheat, oats, rye, corn, 
cowpeas, clover, and any other crop raised for its seed. 
Have the pupils each bring a few culms of these and 
a collection will soon be made. Each bundle shouM 
l)e labeled as follows: 

Name of plant. Date of collection. Name of 
collector. The collection should be acompanied by 
samples of the matvire seed, put up in bottles of uni- 
form size, and labeled as above. 

All the grasses and clovers used as hay may be 
collected in the same way. Arrange the exhibit on 
the wall or in a frame in as artistic a manner as pos- 
sible. 

A day could be set apart when the fruits and veg- 
etables, as well as the farm products of the neighbor- 
hood, can be exhibited. Awards and prizes might be 



ELEAlEXrAKY A(.KICULTUKE 87 

offered, thus making the school a new center of in- 
terest in the community. 

As much of the collection as can be made perma- 
nent, should be made so and kept at the school dur- 
ing the term. 

The collection and arrangement of this material 
will furnish a valuable lesson, and give opportunity to 
develop intelligent exhibitors. 



ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON XXXI 

Title. — Habits of the Common Weeds. 

Season. — Autumn, 

Object. — To study the habits and methods of treating 

some common weeds. 
Material. — A collection of weeds. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Weeds are everywhere, and their disadvantages 
are well known. Select some of the most troublesome 
weeds in your community, and make the following 
study, filling out the table below: 

Name of the Weed. 

1. Kinds of soil in which it thrives best. 

2. Calculate number of seeds, if a seed-bearing 
weed. 

3. How are the seeds scattered? 

4. When ripe? 

5. At what time in the growing season do they 

germinate? 

6. Does the young plant grow rapidly or slowly? 

7. What kind of roots does the plant have? 

8. When you pull it up does a new plant come 

from the same place? 

9. Does plowing through a patch of weeds in- 

crease their number? 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



89 



1 hi 




FOUR COMMON WEEDS 
a — Amaranth. b — Crab grass. c — Rag weed. d — Pigeon grass. 
(Courtesy of Purdue University.) 



90 ONE HUNORED LESSONS IN 

10. Does the weed have any natural check, such 

as birds, insects or Hve stock eating the fo- 
Hage? 

11. Weeds can be killed out in one of two ways, 

either by preventing the formation of seeds, 
or by preventing- the growth of the foliage. 
Which of these methods is best suited to the 
weed in hands? 

12. What garden or field crop does this weed in- 

jure? How do they injure? 

Answer these points for a half-dozen difTerent 
kinds of weeds, and preserve your specimen in the 
school for reference. Learn the names of 12 or 15 
common weeds. 

W^rite to the Department of Agriculture at Wash- 
ington, D. C. for Farmers' Bulletin No. 28, on Weeds 
and How to Destroy Them, and for a reprint from 
the Year Book of i8r)8, entitled. Birds as Weed De- 
stroyers. 

Note. — Some weeds are difficult to eradicate because they have 
large fe^hy roots, that send ud new sprouts as ^mn as the lop is cut 
off. Others are fully as troublesome becau'='e they have underground 
stems that run along just beneath 'he surface. Still other weeds per- 
sist because they can ripen an immense amount of seeds. The way 
to kill the weeds of the first and second class is to cultivate so thor- 
oughly as '.o kill the sprouts as they appear. If this is done thor- 
oughly for about three months, all the substance in the underground 
storehouses will be usBd up and the weed must die. The way to de- 
stroy weeds of the third class is to prevent them from seeding. Deter- 
mine to which class your troublesome (■^veeds belong. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 91 



LESSON XXXII 

Title.— The Flower. 
Season. — Autumn or Spring. 

Object. — To study the flower and its life relation. 
Material. — Any simple, complete flower, hand lens, 
note book, and pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

However much the flowers serve to beautify 
the world, and increase man's enjoyment, that is not 
their chief use. 

The fruit of the plant bears the seed, and tlio 
flower produces the fruit. That is the chief duty of 
the flower. Every plant that produces seed has flow- 
ers. 

Let us see what a flower is. Take for example 
a buttercup, cherry blossom, or the violet. You will 
find on the outside a row of green leaves enclosing 
the flower when it is still a bud. These leaves arc 
called sepals. Next on the inside is a row of colored 
leaves, or petals. Arranged inside of the petals are 
some threadlike parts, each with a knob on the end. 
These are the stamens. Examine one stamen close- 
ly. On the tip at its knob you should find, if the flower 
is fully opened, some fine grains of powder. This 
substance is called pollen, and the knob on the end in 
which the pollen is borne is called the anther. The 



92 



ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



-Stip^nO' 



-3tx2men3 



-Corolla 




VERTICAL SECTION OF A TOMATO BLOSSOM 
(From Burkett et al., Ginn & Co.) 



Anther- 



filament- 



Sty/na---C^ 



Style. - 



Ovary— L 




A STAMEN 



A PISTIL 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



93 



pollen is very important to the flower. Without it 
there could be no seed. But there is another part to 
each flower that is of equal value. This part you will 
find in the center of the flower, inside the circle of 
stamens. It is called the pistil. The swollen tip of 
the pistil is the stigma. The swollen base of the pis- 
til forms the ovary. If you carefully cut open this 
ovary, you will find in it very small unripe seeds. ^ 

In the corn and many others, the stamens and 
pistils are separate. In some plants these parts oc- 
cur on separate individuals. 

Now no plant can bear good seeds tmless the 
pollen of the stamen falls upon the stigma. The wind 
and the insects help to carry the pollen to the stigma. 

Fill out the following table for this lesson on 
flowers : 



Name of 
Flower. 



Nn. of 
Sepals. 



No. of 
Petal.=; 
Color. 



No. of 
Stamens. 



No. of Pistils. 
Seeds many or few. 



Make a drawing of each of the parts of the flower 
and of the whole flower. 



yl ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON XXXIII 

Tiile.— The Wheat Crop. 

Season. — Autumn or Spring. 

Object. — To learn the nature and requirements of the 

wheat crop. 
JVIaterial. — A wheat field for the class to observe some 

wheat culms, grains, and growing plant in the 

School-room. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Plan to take the class to a Avheat field in late 
spring or early autumn. Let the following points 
be brought out by way of introduction : 

Wheat has been cultivated' from the earliest 
times. This crop ranks third in value in the L^nited 
States. It grows in cool, temperate, and warm cli- 
mates, and in many kinds of soil. It does best in clay 
loam, and poorest in sandy soils. Examine the soil 
of the crop before the class, if you are in the field. 
The soil must be well drained, and in a good physical 
condition, — that is it must be open, crumbly, and mel- 
low. Hard clay soils can be made valuable for wheat 
by covering the surface with manure, by good tinage, 
and by crop rotation. Cowpeas or red clover make 
a valuable crop to precede wheat ; for they add nitro- 
gen to the soil, loosen the soil and allow free circu- 
lation of air, and add humus to the soil, when plowed 
under or decaved. 



ELEMENTARY AGBICULTUKE 95 

Pull Up a single wheat plant and see the extent 
')f the root system. From one to two inches is the 
most satisfactory depth for planting wheat. A mel- 
low soil, with a compact subsoil, is the most desirable 
for wheat culture. 

There are a great many varieties of wheat ; some 
are bearded some are smooth ; some are winter vari- 
eties and some are spring varieties. All may be im- 
proved by careful seed selection. 

The seed drill is the best implement for planting 
wheat. 

A study of the crop will show wliat sort of fer- 
cilizer is needed. If the straw is inferior and shon. 
the soil is deficient in nitrogen ; but if the straw be 
luxuriant and the heads small and poorly filfed, the 
soil contains too little phosphoric acid and potash. 

A few wheat seeds should be planted in pots in 
the school-room in time before this lesson, so that 
the growing plants may be observed. 

Make a drawing of a wheat stem and its entire 
root svstem. 



9G OXK HUXDRED LESSONS IX 



LESSON XXXIV 

Title. — The Corn Crop. 

Season. — Autumn or Spring. 

Object. — To study the nature and requirements of tlie 
corn crop. 

Material. — A field of corn for observation, or the glow- 
ing plants in the school-room. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

In former lessons the selecting and testing of seed 
corn has been studied and in this lesson the cultural 
requirements are to be noted. Take the class to a 
field of corn, either in the late spring or early autumn, 
and there discuss with the pupils the following points: 

Corn is king of the cereals, and the most impor- 
tant crop of American agriculture. It is the backbone 
of farming in this country. The white man learned 
the value of this cereal from the Indians, and since 
then its culture has kept pace with the wonderful 
growth of our country. 

A rich humous soil, Joose, warm, and moist, will 
produce a better crop of corn than any other. The 
proper time to begin the cultivation of corn is before 
it is planted. Plow deeply. Harrow the surface mel- 
low and fine. Plant with the horse planter, either in 
hills or in drilled rows. A few days after planting, 
the cornfield should be harrowed with a fine-toothed 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 97 

harrow to loosen the surface soil, and to kill the grass 
and weed seeds that are germinating. When the 
corn plants are from a half inch to an inch high, the 
roller and narrow shoveled cultivator should be used. 
Corn is a crop that needs constant cultivation, 
and during the growing season should be cultivated at 
least four times. This cultivation is for three reasons: 

1. To destroy weeds that take plant food and 
water. 

2. To provide a soil mulch to prevent evapora- 
tion. 

3. Because tillage is a fertilizer. Constant stir- 
ring of the soil allows the air to circulate, and provides 
available plant food. 

Deep culture of corn is not advisable. 

While in the field, have the pupils examine the 
soil, the depth of cultivation, the corn roots, and the 
thriftiness of the crop. 

The stalks ought always to be saved; for they 
make valuable food for horses, cattle, and sheep. 

Have pupils write a paragraph on corn culture 
after the discussion of this lesson. Ask them to con- 
sult the farmers for additional! points. 

Report as follows : 

When plowed? 

How deep? 

How prepared for planting? 

How much seed used? 

What kind of a seeder? 

How harvested? When? 



98 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON XXXV 

Title. — The Roots of Corn and Clover. 

Season.— -Whenever available. 

Object. — To learn the nature and habit of the roots of 

corn and clover. 
Material. — Earthen pots with the growing corn and 

clover plants. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

By growing the corn and clover in pots, the early 
stages of the root may be studied, and by going to 
the field in September, the matured roots may be seen. 

Carefully wash the soil from the young roots, 
and spread them out upon a sheet of paper. Get a 
root from the mature plants and have it before you 
for comparison. 

Note the following points of the corn root, and 
tabulate your answer below : 

1. Length and number of principal roots. 

2. Amount of branching from any one root. 

3. Direction in which the roots extend from the 
base of the plant. 

4. Amount of cubical space used as feeding 
ground. 

5. How near the surface do the roots lie? 

6. Difference between spur roots and the others. 
Reasons. 



ELEMENTARY AGBICULTUKE 99 

7. Can you find root-cap and root-hairs? 

8. Does your observation lead you to any con- 
clusions about the cultivation of corn? Explain. 

Make a similar study and tabulation for the clo- 
ver roots upon these points : 

1. Do you find any nodules on the clover root? 

2. Of what use are these nodules said to be? 

3. Were there any nodules on the corn roots? 

4. Which of these plants has a tap-root? 

5. From this lesson can you see why crops 
should be grown in rotation ? 

Make a drawing in your note-book of the corn 
and dover root system. 

(Adapted from Fisher, Purdue University.) 



100 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON XXXVI 

Title. — Suckers on Corn and the Stooling Habit oi 

Wheat. 
Season. — At any time. 
Object. — To study the stooHng habit of wheat, and 

the growth of suckers on corn. 
Material. — Box of soil in which are growing the wheat 

and corn plants. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

If it is not possible to make this study in the 
fields, the corn and wheat ma}^ be grown in rich soil 
in doors. 

With a stifi knife or trowel, raise a wheat plane 
from the soil without breaking ofif many of the roots. 
Try to find the grain from which the plant started. 
Find the first joint above this grain. 

Do you find more than one plant starting from 
this joint? 

All but the central one of these are stools. 

Do the stools seem to be as strong as the central 
plant? 

Does the thickness of the stand seem to have 
anything to do with the amount of stooling? 

Is the stooling greater in rich soil or in poor soil ? 

Is a large amount of stooling desirable? Why? 



KLICMENTARY AGRICULTUKE 101 

What are your conclusions as to the quantity of 
seed to be sown? 

Are the suckers on the corn examples of stooling? 

Are the suckers beneficial or harmful to the corn 
plant ? Why ? 

Write answers to these questions in the perma- 
nent note-book.. Make drawings to show the stool- 
ing habit. 



102 ONE HUNDRED I.ES^IOXS IN 



LESSON XXXVII 

Title. — Plant Propagation from Cuttings. 

Season. — Any season when plants are available. 

Object. — To learn plant propagation by means of the 
"cutting" method. 

Material. — A window box of rich soil in the school- 
room, and cuttings from begonias, wax plants, 
coleuses, geraniums, verbenas, etc. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

The teacher or the pupils may bring" soft cuttings 
from the stem or leaf of house-plants at home, if none 
are available at the school. The window box, which 
should be a permanent fixture in all the course in ele- 
mentary agriculture, should be supplied for this les- 
son with moist sand, and kept in a v/arm place 

The leaves of the Rex begonia and wax plant may 
be propagated by inserting the edge of the leaf or 
even a piece of the leaf in sand and supplying it with 
plenty of moisture and warmth. A leaf may be laid 
flat, right side up, on the surface of the sand, and fas- 
tened down by splinters through the veins at inter- 
vals. Plants will spring up at the bottom edges of 
the leaf or at cut places in the veins. 

Stem cuttings are easily made from the coleus, 
geranium, verbena, tomato, and numerous other herb- 
aceous plants. Take thrifty shoots from any of these 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTt^RE 



103 




STEM CUTTING, OR SLIP, OF COLEUS 




LEAF CUTTING. — WHOLE LEAF 



104 ONE HTJNDEED LESSONS IN 

plants, and divide them into cuttings having at least 
two nodes and several leaves. Take off about half of 
the leaves, insert the cutting in moist sand about half 
of its length, and press the sand firmly about it. 

Keep the sand warm and moist and watch the de- 
velopment from day to day. 

Popl'ar and willow are trees that will propagate 
easily from cuttings. 

Make drawings of the propagations after llx^ 
roots and sprouts are well started. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTUKE 105 



LESSON XXXVIII 

Title.— Plant Stems. 

Season. — Any season. A good Winter study. 

Object. — To study the growth and structure of the 
different kinds of plant stems. 

Material. — Stems of corn-stalk, and branches of fruit- 
trees. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Give to each pupil a section of corn-stalk and of 
a tree stem about six inches in length. 

Compare the cross sections of the two stems. Note 
that in the corn-stalk the woody fibres are scattered 
irregularly through the pith, while in the tree stem 
the wood is arranged in circles around the pith. Make 
drawings of the cross sections to show this. 

Cut the stems into longitudinal sections, and 
make drawings to show the arrangement of the wood 
and pith. 

These two kinds >oi stems represent the two great 
groups of flowering plants having closed seed vessels, 
— monocotyledons and dicotyledons. The corn stem 
belongs to the former, and the tree stem to the 
latter. The grasses, lilies, palms, etc., are monoco- 
tyledons, and the trees, most of the weeds and grains 
of this section are dicotyledons. 



lOG ONE IIUXDREI) LESSOXS IN 

Fill out the table below with several examples 
of the kinds of stems indicated: 

STEMS ON THE BASIS OF HABIT OF GROWTH. 



Erect. Twining. Prostrate. Underground Condensed Stemless. 

! I =■ bulb stem. 



1. What purposes do stems serve to the plant? 

2. For what purposes do plant stems serve man'* 

3. Name the other parts -of the plant attached 
to the stem. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 107 



LESSON XXXIX 

Title. — Leaves. 

Season. — Autumn or Spring. 

Object. — To learn something of the structure and 

function of leaves. 
Material. — Leaves of corn, trees, weeds, etc., glass 
tumblers, and water. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

The main object to be brought out in the study 
of this lesson is the great work that leaves have to do, 
and the important relations they sustain to the life ot 
the plant. 

Pupils should copy and :^.earn the following; points : 

1. Leaves spread out a great surface through 
which the plant takes in oxyg'en, necessary for its 
life and growth. 

2. Tlfrough this expanded leaf-surface the car- 
bon-dioxide gas of the air enters, and in the sunlight 
the green leaf makes plant food out of the carbon- 
dioxide and the minerals brought up in solution from 
the soil. As one result of this process in the leaf, ox- 
ygen is set free. 

3. After the leaf has used all the food-material 
needed from the sap-solution brought up from the soil 
through the roots and stem, the excess of water is 
thrown off by the leaf. This is called transpiration. 



108 



ONE HrNOIlEI) LESSONS IN 



These are the three principal uses of the leaves to 
the plant. Plant food is manufactured in the leaf in 
the form of starch,' and sent out to the various parts 
of the plant, there to be changed into root, stem, leaf, 
and fruit structure. 

Make a drawing of a simple leaf, such as the ma- 
ple leaf, and also of a compound leaf, such as the locust 
leaf. 




TRANSPIRATION IN LEAVES 



The following experiment will show that plants 
give off moisture : 

Take a plant that is well started in a flower-pot:, 
a piece of cardboard, and two glass tumblers large 
enough to cover the plant. Cut a slit in the card- 
board and draw it around the plant. Seal 
the slit so that no moisture can come throusrh 



ELKMENTARY AGKICLLTUUE 10& 

it from below. Cover the plant with the 
glass, and allow the roots to extend into the water of 
the glass below. Moisture will collect on the inner 
surface of the glass. Where does it come from? Is 
all the moisture absorbed by the roots given off in 
this way? How could you find out? Why do plants 
need water? 



110 OXE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON XL 

Title. — A Study in Fruitp. 

Season. — At any time when the fruit can be had. 

Object. — To learn the structure and classes of our 
common fruit. 

Material. — For each pupil, two apples, two pears, and 
a few peach pits; some quince and plum pits if 
possible ; a draw^ing pencil and a knife. 

SUB.JECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

1. Let each pupil take an apple and a pear and 
observe the blossom end, opposite the stem. Here is 
a depression called the basin. This Avas the base of 
the apple and pear blossom. Compare with the blos- 
som end of the peach or plum. Explain the dififer- 
ence. 

2. Let each pupil cut the fruits through the cen- 
ter, in a plane perpendicular to the main stem. Ex- 
amine the core, the cells and the seeds. How many 
cells are there? How are they arranged? Observe 
the parchment-like walls of the cells. How many 
seeds in each cell? Make a drawing of the cross sec- 
tion of the pear or apple. 

3. Compare the structure of the plum or peach 
pits with the apple seeds. Note the hard shell-like 
covering of the pits. Crack the shell and observe the 
seed. In this meaty portion lies the embyro, which 



ELEMENTAKY AGRICULTURE 111 

will grow into a new plant under proper conditions 
of air, heat, and moisture. Draw cross section of the 
peach. 

These fruits belong- to the two classes which com- 
jDrise our common fruit-trees. 

1. The Pomaceous fruit: 

Apple, pear, crab apple, quince, etc. 

2. The Drupaceous fruit : 

Plum, peach, cherry, etc. 
Answer the following questions : 

1. AMiat fruits have a depression at the blossom 
end? 

2. A\'hat fruits are more or less rounded at the 
blossom end ? 

3. What common fruits have seeds? 

4. AVhat three common fruits have pits? 

5. How much space does the core take up in 
the apple? 

How many cells in the core of the apple? 

7. How do pits and seeds differ in structure? 

8. What are the general differences between a 
pome fruit and a drupe fruit? 



n2 ONE ITUXDRED LESSOXS IX 



LESSON XLI 

Title. — Decay in Apples. 

Season. — At any time. May be a Winter lesson. 

Object. — To show that apples should not be shaken 
from the tree and allowed to fall tp the ground 
if they are to be kept. (Adapted from Davis). 

Material. — Three ripe apples, and weighing scales. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Select three ripe apples of the same variety and 
of equal degree of ripeness and bring them before the 
class. 

1. Strike against the side of one so as to bruise 
the surface but not break the skin. 

2. Bruise the second apple so that the skin is 
broken. 

3. Leave the third apple uninjured. 

P|lace the three apples away somewhere in the 
room where they will not be disturbed, and observe 
the results from day to day. 

1. Which apple decays first? 

2. Of what use is the skin of the apple? 

3. Take two apples of nearly the same size, and 
weigh both. Peel one and leave the other untouched. 
Weigh both apples again in twenty-four hours. Which 
has lost the most in weight? Explain the cause. 

Note. — If there are no scales in the school, ask 
some pupil to bring this instrument from his home. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



113 



LESSON XLII 

Title. — Judging Apples. 

Season. — At any time. May be a Winter study. 
Object. — To learn how to judge and score apples. 
Material. — Apples, pencil, and note-book. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Ask the pupils to bring a number of apples to 
school for this lesson. If each pupil should bring 
four or five of the same variety of apples, they may 
be arranged on a plate before the class and scored as 
an entry exhibit. Use the following score points, 
adapted from Davis Agriculture : 



SCORE CARD FOR JUDGING APPLES. 
Onwer of the exhibit Date 



Points Noted. 



Size of the exhibit 



'Perfect Score. Teacher's Score. jPupil's Score. 
1 ^20^ 



1 
Size of fruit. | 15 


Color. 1 15 1 1 


Form. 1 15 1 - | 


Quality. | 15 | | 


Freedom from Blemishes | 20 | | 


Total 1 100 1 1 



When single plates or apples are scored the first 
point may be graded the full 20 points. 



114 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON XLIII 

Title. — Pruning. 

Season. — May be a Winter or early Spring lesson. 
Object. — To learn how to prune fruit-trees. 
Material. — Fruit-trees and a sharp knife. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Go with the class to an orchard. If this is not 
possible, bring into the school-room a large branch ot 
a fruit-tree, and treat, it as a small tree to be pruned. 

Look about in the orchard and try to find places 
on the trees where branches have been pruned off. 
See whether those cut close to the main stem or those 
cut a little way from it healed over more readily. 
What does your observation teach you as to the place 
to cut a branch in pruning? 

Would you use a saw or knife in pruning the 
branches? 

How could you keep a large limb from splitting 
down as it fell? 

How could you protect the wound, where a large 
limb was pruned? 

Which is the best time of the year to prune-* 
Why? 

Note.— In pruning very young trees, two meth- 
ods are usually pursued : — 

First, the method of cutting ofif all the side 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 115 

branches to one or two buds, leaving a single straight 
central stem. 

Second, the method of cutting away all of the 
branches but three or four main ones which are left to 
develop into a more or less spreading growth. 

It is best to leave the branches growing rather 
low, in order to afford a better shade for the trunk and 
ground beneath, and in order to facilitate the gather- 
ing of the fruit. 

We prune for the following reasons : 

1. To modify the vigor of the plant. 

2. To produce larger and better fruit or flowers. 

3. To keep the plant within manageable shape 
and limits. 

4. To remove superfluous or injured parts. 

5. To facilitate spraying and harvesting. 

6. To facilitate tillage. 

7. To make the plant assume a more desired 
form. 

Mild pruning every year tends to maintain the 
balance of the tree and make it more fruitful. 

Select a tree that needs pruning, and demonstrate 
before the class the proper method of pruning it. If 
the teacher does not wish to rfiake this demonstra- 
tion, perhaps the owner of the orchard or some other 
fruit-grower could be called into service. 



116 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON XLIV 

Title. — A Hotbed Garden. 
Season. — Early Spring. 

Object. — To learn how to make and plant a hotbed. 
Material. — Spade, some boards, manure, and window 
sash. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

The teacher may look at this lesson and think 
that it would be too much trouble to work it out; 
but the results of the experiment would justify the 
efifort, and it can be successfully done. 

As early as March select a place at the south side 
of some building for the hotbed. Dig an oblong space 
three feet wide, six feet long, and eighteen inches 
deep. Make a wall of posts and boards, fitting close 
to the sides of the bed. Make the back wall three 
feet high and eighteen inches above the surface of 
the ground. A piece of two-by-four joist set in 
from back to front across' the middle, will make a. 
support for the window sashes which are to cover 
the bed. When the bed is ready, put in a layer of 
strawed manure that has been piled for some 
time, fill in about nine inches of the manure and 
tramp it down firmly. Then add a second layer of nine 
inches, and tramp firmly as before. 



ELEMENTABY AGKICULTUEE 117 

Then spread four inches of rich garden loam over 
the manure, and the bed is ready. Perhaps some of 
the pupils can bring whole window sashes from home 
to cover the bed. Two sashes three feet square would 
make the necessary cover. 

Early lettuce, radishes, Early Jersey Wakefield 
cabbages, the Earliana tomato, onions, and other vege- 
tables may be sown thickly in rows about four inches 
apart, and by the time warm weather comes, the 
school will have plants to supply the neighborhood, 
the children will have seen many interesting things, 
and the school will have found a new source of co- 
operation with the home. 

In the hotbed the manure warmed the soil, and 
the glass kept the heat in the frame. The soil 
should be watered every few days, and on the bright 
days the sash should be raised to admit fresh air to 
the little seedlings. 

Have the pupils draw the plan of the hotbed, 
and describe the preparation and planting. 



118 



ONE HUNDEED LESSONS IN 



LESSON XLV 

Title. — Field Study of the Common Grains. 
Season. — Summer or Autumn. 
Object. — To compare the common field crops. 
Material. — Note-book and pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Go to the field some evening at four o'clock with 
the class in agriculture. Have the pupils take the 
following table of directions for field work, and make 
the necessary tabulations in the field. Other points 
of the table may be filled in after the discussion of the 
lesson on the following day: 











1 




bib 












r^-^ 




a 




"S '^ 






ai 




<M bO 




^ 


h 


.a 

M 

'S 
II 


■H to 

O (L 

.■a 

O cS 

^5 


o a 
. ;- 

O <D 


5w 

a 

II 


on 


Time 
Harves 


.a 


Corn. 

















Wheat 










Oats 
















Rye 
















Barley 

















ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



119 



LESSON XLVI 

Title. — The Best Corn in the Community. 

Season. — At any time. 

Object. — To find out who has the best corn in the 

community. 
Material. — The corn and scales at home. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Have each pupil weigh out one bushel of corn in 
the ear at home and bring the weights to school. Let 
the pupils tabulate the results as follows 

Let each pupil copy the weights and data of all 
the others. 



















^ 


^j 


fl 






o . 


^§ 




o'S 






-tJ OJ 












■?-^ 


•" ^ 


" ^ 


U"* t- 


<D 


•a a 








£1 O 


l^ 


■ 0) 


<D OJ 


^1 


t- 






Oh > 


a 


Im'/^ 






O 


D 


> 



120 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON XLVII 

Title, — Propagation of Raspberries. 

Season. — Autumn. 

Object. — To learn the method of propagation in the 

black and red raspberry. 
Material. — Red and black raspberry plants. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Go with the class to a garden or field where the 
black and red raspberry grow. Call attention to the 
fact that the black raspberry bends over ind that the 
tip takes root in the ground and propagates in this 
way. If none have taken root in this way, a stalk 
should be bent over and covered with earth to allow 
the tip to take root. 

Notice that the red raspberry does not bend over 
and root at the tip as the black raspberry does, but 
that new stalks spring up at intervals from the root 
under ground. The red raspberry thus spreads rap- 
idly and if left to itself will spend its energy in grow- 
ing canes rather than producing berries. This can be 
prevented by cutting off all the new shoots but two 
or three for the next year's growth. 

Show the pupils how to prune both varieties in 
the spring in order to have the canes produce the most 
and best berries. 

Cut away the last year's canes. Cut the canes 



KLEMENTAKY AGRICULTURE 121 

of the black raspberries that have bent over and taken 
root, so that there shall be two individual canes in- 
stead of the single one rooted at both ends. 

After the field lesson, have the pupils write a 
comparison of the two raspberries as to habits of 
growth and propagation basing their description on 
the observations in the field. 



122 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON XLVIII 

Title. — Raising Cucumbers in the Garden. 

Season. — Spring or Summer. 

Object. — To show how to prepare and plant a pro- 
ductive cucumber bed. 

Material. — A barrel, spade, manure, and cucumber 
seeds. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

If it is desired, this lesson may be demonstrated 
upon the school-grounds, or in a garden near the 
school, where permission is granted. 

The boys of the class may do this work under the 
direction of the teacher and for the observation of the 
class. Select a fertile spot and dig a hole in the 
ground large enough to sink the barrel midway. 
Knock the bottom out of the barrel, and set it in the 
ho'''e in the ground. Fill the earth in about the out- 
side of the barrel, and mound the soil up to the rim of 
the barrel on the outside. Now fill the barrel with 
manure, packed firmly, and keep it covered to prevent 
the house flies from breeding in it. 

The bed is ready for planting. Plant five or six 

hills of cucvnnber seeds in the mound heaped up 

about the outside of the barrel. Put about ten seeds 

in a hill, and when the plants get large enough to 

vine, remove half of them 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 123 

Pour several pails of water into the barrel of ma- 
nure each day, and the water leaching through the 
compost, will furnish the best of fertilizer for the 
plants, and the necessary moisture for their thrifty 
growth. These few hills will furnish an abundance 
of cucumbers, and upon a very small space of ground. 

If this lesson cannot be demonstrated at school, 
it is worth the study in order that it may be worked 
out at home by the pupil in the home garden. 



324 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IX 



LESSON XLIX 

Title. — The Pea Family. 

Season. — Spring or Autumn. 

Object. — To karn the leguminous plants and their 

value. 
Material. — Some hand lenses, blossoms or pods of 

beans, peas, and clover, and an entire clover plant 

showing nodules on the roots. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

The group of plants most important to mankind 
is the great grass family, which includes corn, wheat, 
oats timothy, and others. 

The second group in importance is the pea family. 
These plants are commonly called leguminous plants. 
Preceding lessons have referred to the great value of 
the clover and the cowpea. Their great value to the 
soil is in furnishing a congenial home for the bacteria, 
(which are microscopic plants) causing the nodules 
on the roots. In some way these bacteria take nitro- 
gen from the air, so that it becomes available food 
for the growth of the plant. These bacteria do not 
live on the roots of any common plants except the 
legumes. 

The reason why this is so important a sul^ject, is 
because nitrogen is the most expensive thing that the 
farmer buvs in fertilizers. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



125 




126 ONE HUNDRED. LESSONS IN 

If the bacteria are not in the soil where the le- 
gume is to grow, the soil may be inoculated by sprink- 
ling it with soil from a field where the legume has for- 
merly grown. 

Specimen roots of the clover showing the nodules 
should be before the class for observation. Any text 
in Elementary Agriculture will explain the work of 
bacteria on the legume roots in further detail. 

The important thing here is to learn to recognize 
the leguminous plants. If the class cannot be taken 
to the field for this (esson, the following plants may be 
brought into the school-room: clovers, alfalfa, peas, 
beans, vetch, black locust, and all plants available 
with pea-like flowers. 

The following outline for study is suggested : 

1. How are the leaves arranged? 

2. Are the leaves simple (all in one piece), or 
compound (divided into several leaflets) ? 

3. What two kinds of compound leaves? Draw 
one of each, as the pea and clover. 

4. Describe the flower, recalling the names and 
parts learned in a former lesson on the flower. 

5. Make a drawing of the blossom. 

6. Split a bean or pea pod. How does it open? 

7. Make a list of the legumes of the neighborhood. 
Write to Department of Agriculture, Washing- 
ton D. C, for sample of inoculating bacteria. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE " 127 



LESSON L 

Title. — No Two Plants Alike. 

Season. — Autumn. 

Object. — To show the great fact of variation, that no 

two plants or animals are alike. 
Material. — Any two or more plants of the same kind. 

A number of stalks of corn, grass, wheat, or a 

number of trees. Any two plants anywhere give 

the facts. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

The method is to see a plant accurately and then 
compare it with another plant of the sane kind. Let 
any two stalks of corn be held up before the class ; or, 
if the pupils are in the field, each one may select two 
stal!ks for comparison. Allow no guessing. Measure 
and observe accurately. Look for the following 
points : 

1. Height of the plant. 

2. Does it branch ? How many secondary stems 
or suckers from one root? 

3. Shade or color. 

4. How many leaves? 

5. Arrangement of leaves on the stem. 

6. Measure length and breadth of six main leaves. 

7. Number and position of ears. Color of silks. 



128 



ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 




ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 129 

8. Size of tassel, and number and size of its 
branches. 

9. Stage of maturity or ripeness of the plant. 

10. Has the plant grown symetrically, or has it 
been crowded by other plants, or been obliged to 
struggle for *light or room? 

11. Note all the unusual marks or features. 

12. Note the comparative vigor. 

These points may be used with au)^ two plants 
with slight modification. 

(Adapted from Bailey in the Cornell Rural 
Leaflet.) 



130 ONE IIUNDEED LESSONS IN 



LESSON LI 

Title. — Transplanting. 

Season. — Spring. 

Object. — To learn how to transplant, and what plants 

are usually tjransplanted. 
Material. — Some tomato-plants, cabbage-plants, pan- 
. sies, or other plants in the school-room and a box 

of soil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

This lesson should be given in connection with 
the school garden if possible, but if there is no school 
garden, the transplanting may be done as a demonstra- 
tion in a window garden indoors. 

The plants usually transplanted are the tomato, 
cabbage, celery, pansy, and young trees. 

If the hotbed has been made at the school there 
will be plenty of material available, and it is an impor- 
tant and practical lesson to learn. 'The following rules 
will guide to successful transplanting: 

1. Transplant when the weather is cool and 
damp, preferable in the late afternoon. 

2. Transplant when the plant is young. 

3. Break the roots as little as possible in taking 
the young plant up, and keep them moist and shaded. 

4. It is well to cut off some of the top in trans- 
planting, in order to restore the balance between the 



ELEMENTARY AGKICULTUKE 131 

root and top, since some of the roots were probably 
lost in transplanting. 

5. The plant should be dipped in water and have 
moist fertile soil packed firmly about the roots. If wa- 
ter is to be used it should be poured about the roots 
before all the soil is added. 

6. The plant should have as large a space as that 
in which it originally grew. The soil should be put 
in first at the bottom of the hole in which the roots 
are to grow, and the subsoil, if any, at the surface. It 
is important to make the soil firm about the roots. 

7. It is sometimes weU to shade the young trans- 
plant a few days from the hot sunshine, or to protect 
the roots with a mulch of straw or grass. 

. The pupils in agriculture should by all means get 
some actual practice in transplanting, if in no other 
way than by going to the school yard and getting wild 
plants to transplant in pots or in out door plots. 



132 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON LII 

Title. — The Toad, the Farmers' Friend. 
Season. — Any time when toads may be obtained. 
Opject. — To learn the value of the common toad. 
Material. — A glass tumbler, some mosquito netting, a 
screen cage and some insects. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

The day before this lesson is to be given, tiie teach- 
er, with the pupils' assistance, should have a box about 
a cubic foot in size, screened off on two opposite sides 
with common door-screening, and a little hinged door 
of some sort made, through which the toads and insects 
may be put into the box. 

Place two toads in the box on the evening be- 
fore the lesson, and they will be hungry enough to 
"show off" well for the class. Announce the plan be- 
forehand, and ask the pupJls to bring in flies, bugs, but- 
terflies, caterpillars, worms, beetles, etc. 

When the lesson is ready to begin, place the box 
before the class, put all the insects in with the toads, 
and watch them eat. Such an interesting sight the 
pupils seldom see. The insects disappear as if by 
magic, snapped in by the toad's long tongue with light- 
ning rapidity. Have some pupil count how many in- 
sects the toad eats during the recitation time. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 133 

Place one toad in the glass tumbler, cover with 
a mosquito netting and pass it around among the pu- 
pils, so that all can see the beautiful eyt> — . "the fabled 
jewel" in the toad's head. 

While the observation is going on, the following 
points should be brought out: 

The toad does more to rid the garden and field of 
noxious insects than any one species of bird, and he 
has solved the problem of insecticides betier thafi 
man with all his bungling spray-machines. 

The toad has a "homeing instinct,'" and should 
be placed in yards, gardens and fields, and become 
one of our most valued domestic animals. A little 
stone house, containing a shallow jar of water will 
furnish an attractive home for the toad in the garden, 
and he will go forth at night like the lubber fiend, to 
do our tasks while we sleep. 

Laws should be passed preventing the small boy 
from killing all the toads he cares to. The toad is 
absolutely harmless, and the old wart superstition is 
mere "bosh," and its ugliness, so-called, becomes 
transformed into real beauty, when we see its great ser- 
vice in the economy of nature. The fact that the toad 
sometimes gets into wells, reflects on the thriftless 
methods of the man who leaves his wells open, rather 
than upon the thirst of the poor toad which falls in, 
in its search for the water, the man should provide for 
it. 

In these days of increasing insect pests, it be- 
hooves us to encourage and protect all of the natural 
enemies of our plant destroyers, and a few toads in a 



134 ONE HUNDEED LESSONS IN 

garden will go far toward controlling the cut worms, 
caterpilllars, and the leaf-eating beetles. 

The toad is an animal full of vital interest from 
its egg stage, through the tad-pole development, to the 
adult, and the horror and disgust with which this 
harmless beneficial friend is viewed by many boys and 
girls should be changed to intelligent sympathy and 
active appreciation in its behalf. 




THE TOAD 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 135 



LESSON LIII 

Title. — Types of Horses. The Driving Horse. 
Season. — May be a Winter lesson. 
Object. — To teach the pupil to see a horse when he 
looks at him, and to recognize the driving type. 
Material. — A driving horse before the class. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

By comparing the horses we see on the street, we 
observe that there are different forms or types. Some 
have a form that enables them to draw a heaA-y load 
at a slow pace, while others have a form adapted to 
drawing light loads at a rapid pace. These represent 
two distinct types, and are called, draft horses and 
driving horses. 

In this lesson we are to study the driving horse. 
You will observe that the driving horse has a long 
graceful neck, a narrow chest, long body and legs. 
In the driving horse weight is not so important as in 
the draft horse. Speed and endurance seem to be the 
principal points sought in the roadster. The driving 
horse varies widely in height and weight. 

Professor Whipple of the West Virginia State 
University suggests the following points which any 
school boy should recognize in a good driving horse : 

1. The color is not so important in this type of 
horses. The dark colors, bay or sorrel are always the 
most esteemed. 

2. Geldings are to be preferred. 



136 



ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



3. The horse should be fifteen to sixteen hands 
high at the withers. 

4. Conformation. The horse should be harmoni- 
ous, unblemished, withers rather low, and loins slight- 
ly weak, but powerful croup, thighs, buttocks, legs and 
hoeks are essential. 




THE DRIVING HORSE 

5. The neck should be long, chest wide and deep, 
limbs clean and long, and muscles and joints showing 
graceful prominence. 

6. The animal should have good life and not be 
afraid of ordinary objects. 

The teacher should study the following score card 
for light horses, and if the proper explanations be 
made, pupils of the eighth grade will be able to mark 
the card and score the horse fairlv well : 



ELEMEIS^TARY AGRICULTURE 



137 










..Jt*. 



A WELL PROPORTIONED HORSE 

a — Forehead : b — Muzzle ; c — Withers ; d — Breast ; e — Arm ; f — Back ; 

g — Belly ; h — Hip ; i — Hock ; j — Croup ; k — Dock ; 1 — Knee ; 
m — Cannon ; n — Fetlock ; o — Pastern. 

(Courtesy of Cornell Rural Leaflets.) 



138 



ONE IIUNOKED LESSOXS IN 
SCORE CARD FOR LIGHT HORSE. 



Frame — Smooth, evenly proportioned 4 

Quality — Bone clean and hard, tendons well 
defined, veins prominent, skin and hair fine 5 

Temperament — Active but kind 3 

Head — Lean and symetrical 1 

Forehead — Full and broad 1 

Eyes — Large, clear, open, and bright. ..:... 1 
Ears — Close together, medium in size, pointed 

to carry well forward 1 

Muzzle — Clean and fine, nostrils large, lips 

thin and even 1 

Neck — Muscular, crest high, windpipe 

prominent 1 

Shoulders — Long, oblique, well muscled 2 

Arms — Short, thrown forward 1 

Fore-arms — Long, wide 2 

Knees — Wide, straight, and clean 2 

Cannons — Short, wide, sinews large 2 

Fetlock — Wide, - straight 1 

Pasterns — Strong, angle with ground 45 

degrees 3 

Fee; — Medium and even in .=ize, horn dense, 
frog large, elastic, bars strong, sole 

concave, heel wide 6 

Legs — Viewed in front, a perpendicular from 
point of shoulder should cut the Renter of 
knee cannon, pastern and foot viewed from 
side, a perpendicular from center of elbow 
should cut the center of knee and pastern 

joint and the back of hoof 4 

Withers — Well finished and muscled at top. 1 

Chest — Deep, low, large 2 

Ribs — Long, sprung, close 2 

Back — Straight, short, broad, well muscled.. 2 

Loin — Wide, short and thick 2 

Underline — Short, straight 1 

Hip.s — Wide, level 2 

Croup — Long. wide, mu'^cular 2 

Tail — Attached high, well carried 1 

Thighs — Muscular, long, and spread 2 

Quarters — Deep and heavily muscled 2 

Gaskin — Muscular, long and wide 2 

Hocks — Clean, wide, straight 5 

Cannons — Short, wide, and clean 2 

Fetlocks — Wide, s' ra'ight 1 

Pastern — Strong, sloping 2 

Feet — Same as fore feet 7 4 

Legs — From behind, perpendicular from point 
of buttock outs center of hock, cannon, 
pastern and foot : frnm side, perpendicular 
from point of hip should fall on center of 
foot and divide gaskin in the middle and 
perpendicular from buttock should be 

parallel with cannon 4 

Action — Walk quick. elastic, trot rapid, 
straight, regular and high 20 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 139 



LESSON LIV 

Title.— The Draft Horse. 

Season. — At any time. May be a Winter study. 

Object. — To learn, to know, and to judge the draft 

horse. 
Material. — A draft horse before the class. A yard stick 

or tape line. 

SrBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Arrange to have a draft horse in the school yard 
for this lesson. 

Call attention to the short legs, heavy body, short, 
thick neck, broad, deep chest and shoulders, strong 
hocks and rather large joints and feet. With the draft 
type weight is one of the most important considera- 
tions. A draft horse may weigh from 1,500 to 2,000 
pounds. The heavy horse in harness brings greater 
power into the collar than does the light one. 

There are several different breeds of draft horses. 
The Percherons, Belgians,. Clydesdale, and English 
Shires are the common breeds. 

Professor Whipple of West Virginia University 
suggests the following points that any school boy 
should recognize in a good draft horse : 

1. The best selling colors are: bay, chestnut, 
brown, roan, black, and iron grey. 

2. Body conformation, massive low-set, ample. 



140 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 

very muscular, short-flanked, cylindrical, large and 
broad limbs, good feet, good face, ardor and endur- 
ance. 

3. The horse should be at least sixteen hands 
high at the withers. 

4. The animal should be sound, and the follow- 
ing blemishes should always be in mind in examining 
a horse : 

Spavin, curb, thorough-pin, sidebones, splints, 
Sweeney, sprung knees, faulty hoofs, poor eye sight, 
string halt, poor wind, parrot mouth, blindness, etc. 

5. The horse should have good life but be gen- 
tle. 

\\'hile the horse is present for this lesson, some 
interesting and profitable measurements may be made, 
which should teach the pupils to recognize good pro- 
portions in the horse. 

Three important points for measurements are, 
length of the head, total length of the body, and the 
total height of the body. 

Use an ordinary tape measure in this part of the 
exercise. 

1. The height of the horse, from the top of the 
\withers to the ground. 

2. The height of the horse from the hips to the 
ground. 

3. Length of the body from the point of the el- 
bow to the back of the buttock. 

4. The length of the head. 

It will be found in a horse of good proportions 
that the first three measurements each equal about two 
and one-half times the length of the head. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



141 



If we take the total length of the horse's head, and 
compare it with the body of a well formed horse, we 
will find that there are four other measurements al- 
most exactly equal to it as follows : 

1. The length of the neck from the top of the 
withers to the poll. If there is much difference between 
these measurements, we say that the head is too long 
or the neck is too short. 

2. The height of the shoulder from the top of the 
"v'i'hers to vhe point of the elbow. 

3. The thickness of the body from the middle of 
the abdomen to the middle of the back. If there is a 



■ 


HP 




E 




%■•" 


:'^^|^H^I 






■ f 

II 


yf-^^^^^^^^^ 



THE DRi^FT HORSE 



142 ONE HUNDKED LESSONS IN 

great variation in these measurements, we say the 
horse has a poor form. 

4. The width of the body from one side to the 
other. 

A better instrument for taking the measurements 
of a horse, as suggested by Mr. Harper in the Cornell 
Rural Leaflets, is as follows. A piece of soft white 
pine two inches wide, one-half inch thick, and four 
feet long; to one end of this, and at right angles to it, 
tack a similar piece of pine 18 inches long; to the other 
end strap loosely an ordinary carpenter's square so 
that it may slide back and forth. Now mark off the 
long piece into inches, beginning at the inside of the 
right angle at the end. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 143 



LESSON LV 

Title.— The Dairy Cow. 

Season. — May be a Winter study. 

Object. — To learn to recognize and judge the dairy 

cow. 
Material. — A dairy cow before the class. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

For this lesson have a dairy cow brought into 
the school yard, and as the class observes the cow 
the teacher should speak briefly upon the following 
points. 

Cattle are kept for two main purposes; for the 
production of milk and for the production of beef. 
These two purposes make diflferent demands upon the 
energies of the animal, and thus through many gen- 
erations of selection and development, there have arisen 
two types of cattle, the beef form or type, and the milk 
form or type. These two forms are not entirely dis- 
tinct or separate, but they tend to merge into inter- 
mediate forms. 

The chief differences that distinguish the beef 
and dairy types are : 

1. Outline of body. 

2. Depth and smoothness of flesh. 

3. Size of udders. 

In the dairy type the general outline of body is 



144 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 

"wedge-shaped from before backward. This is due 
to a large development of the hind quarters, and some- 
times by low thin shoulders. The height of the animal 
at the hip is from one-half to one inch greater than 
at the shoulders. The wedge-shaped appearance is 
increased by a large and pendulous abdomen, and by 
a large and well developed udder. In the dairy type 
there is less muscular development and more spare 
angular appearance. The animal may be fat enough 
and still present this spare appearance. In the dairy 
type the udder is much larger and fuller than in the 
beef type, and the so-called "milk-veins" stand out 
prominently. 

The dairy breeds are the Jersey, Guernsey, Ayr- 
shire, Holstein, etc. 



ELEMENTAKY AGRICULTURE 



145 



While the cow is before the class the pupils should 
each score the animal, using the following score-card, 
which explains how the points should be maTked: 



SCORE CARD FOR DAIRY COWS. 

Student's Name Date . . 

Breed Age Weight 



General — 
Form — Wedge shaped, viewed from front, 

side and top ■ 

Quality — Hair and skin fine and mellow, skin 

loose and thin 

Temperament • — - Nervous 

Head and Neck — 

Muzzle — Large and clean, nostrils large 

Eyes — Large, brilliant full and mild 

Face — Dishing and lean 

Forehead — Broad 

Ears — Medium in size, fine in texture, with no 

long, coarse hair 

Horns — Waxy, small, and fine in texture ...... 

Neck — Fine, clean, with little or no dewlap.... 

Forequarters — 

Withers — Short, lean and thin 

Shoulders — Light, lean and oblique 

Legs — Short, straight and fine 

Body — 

Chest — Deep, wide, girth large 

Bowel — Ribs arched, long, and wide apart ; 

stomach large and roomy 

Back — straight, lean ; spines prominent and 

wide apart 

Loin — Broad 

Navel — Large 

Hindquarters — 

Hips — Far apart, level 

Rump — Long level 

Pinbones and Thurlis — High, wide apart, and 

prominent 

Tail — Reaching to hocks, fine 

Thighs — Thin, long 

Escutcheon — High and spreading 

Udder — High behind, extending well forward in 

front ; quarters even ; teats evenly placed ; 

udder not fleshy 



10 




8 
6 




1 
1 

1 
1 




1 
1 

1 




2 
2 
1 




12 




12 




2 
2 
2 




2 
2 




3 

1 
4 
2 




20 





14G 



ONE IIUXDRED LESSONS IX 




'' i '^'' -■•//'.' •'^ 






-.^ 



o t. 



ELEJIEXTARV AGRICULTURE 147 



LESSON LVI 

Title.— The Beef Cow. 

Season. — May be a Winter study. 

Object. — To learn to recognize and to judge the beef 

type of cattle. 
Material. — A beef cow before the class. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

This lesson should follow lesson 55, so that the 
comparison of the two types may be brought out more 
clearl}'. Present to the class the chief characteristics 
of the beef cow as follows : 

In the beef form the outline of the body approach- 
es the rectangular. The general contour of the top 
and bottom line is straight and parallel, and the general 
dimensions of the body approximate those of a brick. 
In the best beef animal the whole body is thickly and 
smoothly covered with flesh, so that the angles of 
the bones are not prominent. The neck is short, and 
the whole body has a rounded appearance. In the 
beef type, not only is the udder small, but the veins 
leading from it are small and more or less embedded 
in the surrounding muscular and fatty tissue. 

The principal beef breeds are : 

1. Aberdeen-Angus. 

2. Galloways. 

3. Shorthorn or Durham. 



148 



ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 




^•3 



o 


k. 


o 


3 




tf 


fe 


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a 


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1- 

o 


H 


O 




o 



ELEMENTARY AGKICULTURE 



149 



4. Hereford. 

5. Sussex. 

Use the following score card and judge the points 
in the animal before the class : 



SCORE CARD FOR BEEF CATTLE. 
Student's Name ' Date 



General — 

Weight — Score according to age 

Form — Broad, deep and massive ; top line and 

under line straight ; legs short 

Quality — Hair fine, skin pliable, evenly fleshed, 

deep meated, especially in the valuable cuts.. 

Head and Neck — 

Forehead — Broad and full 

Eyes — Bright, clear and large 

Face — Short, quiet expression 

Muzzle — Mouth large, jaw wide, nostril large... 

Ears — Fine texture, medium in size 

Horns — Medium in size, fine in texture, waxy. . 
Neck — Short and thick, with no loose skin.... 

Forequarters — 
Shoulder — Well covered with compact flesh on 

top and bottom, and smooth ; shoulder vein 

filled out so as to make a smooth connection 

with the neck 

Brisket — Prominent, showing well forward of 

the legs viewed from the side 

Dewlap — Should not have a surplus of loose skin. 
Legs^Short and straight, arms full and smooth . 

Body — 

Chest — ^Full, wide, deep, girth large 

Ribs — Arched, long, and thickly fleshed 

Back — Straight, broad, smooth, evenly and 

deeply meated 

Loin — Broad and thick 

Flank — Deep and full, making a straight 

underline 

Hindquarters — 
Rump — Long, wide and smooth, no bunches 

of flesh at tail 

Hips — Smooth and well covered with meat 

Pinbones — Far apart but not prominent 

Thighs — Deep, wide and full 

Twist — Deep and full 

Purse — Full, fleshy 

Legs — Short, straight and smooth 



Total 



10 

15 

15 

1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 



10 

7 




150 ONE HUXDKED LESSONS IN 



LESSON LVII 

Title. — The Composition of Milk. 
Season. — May be a Winter study. 
Object. — To learn some of the contents of milk, and 

to realize the importance of this subject for study. 
Material. — A quart of fresh milk, thermometer, saucer. 

pan. bottle, and a few drops of vinegar. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Learn the following facts about milk : 
Milk consists of about seven-eighths water and 
one-eighth substances in solution in the water or float- 
ing in it in very small particles. You may be sur- 
prised to learn that so large a proportion of milk is 
water. This is true not only of milk but of many of 
our most important foods. 

The constituents of milk are often referred to as 
Water and total solids; fat casein, albumen, sugar and 
ash. _ A chemist can separate these substances with 
great accuracy, but by the following methods we can 
make a gross analysis : 

1. Leave a little milk in a saucer for a short 
time in a warm place. The water will evaporate and 
leave the solids in dry form. 

2. Separation of fat. Let a quart of fresh milk 
quietly stand in a shallow pan, in a cool place, until 
a rich la3'er of cream gathers at the top. This cream 



ELE.MEXTARY At.RIL'ULTURE 151 

is formed by the rising" of tiny globules of l)utter-fat, 
which were distributed evenly through the fresh 
milk. The fat is so much lighter than the liquid m 
which it floats that it will rise in the cream layer in 
about twelve hours. This fat is the principal con- 
stituent of butter and cheese. 

3. Separation of Casein. Add a few drops of 
acid, vinegar will do. to the skimmed milk. Soon it 
will thicken. Gently warm it now to about one hun- 
dred degrees, and carefully break the thickened sur- 
face with a knife, and the skimmed milk will be seen 
to separate into curd and whey. Now strain through 
a cloth, and the casein wiT. remain in the cloth, while 
the whey passes through. This casein is one of the 
principal parts of cheese. 

4. Separation of Albumen. Slowh' heat the 
whey to i6o degrees F. It will become cloudy and 
soon a soft jelly-like substance will collect on the 
surface. This is the albumen. This can now be sep- 
arated b}' straining. 

5. Separation of sugar. Take a snudl quan- 
tity of the whey from which the albumen has been 
separated, place in a saucer and warm gently un- 
til the water has been evaporated. A dr}* substance 
remains. This is about seven eighths milk-sugar and 
one-eighth ash. 

6. Separation of ash. It will not be possible 
to separate the ash and sugar in pure form. Heat 
the mixture on a piece of dish or on the stove cover, 
and allow to burn as long as it will. The small 
amount left is the milk-ash. 

(Adapted from Cornell Leaflet.) 



152 



ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 




ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 153 



LESSON LVIII 

Title.— The Souring of Milk. 

Season. — May be a Winter study. 

Object. — To learn how milk sours and how to care 

for it. 
Material. — Text-book and note-book lesson. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Discuss with the class the following points, and 
for the note-book work of this lesson, require the stu- 
dents to write a paragraph on the care of milk, and 
copy the drawing as shown in the figure, into their 
note-books. 

In another lesson we have spoken of the little 
plants called bacteria, which live at the roots of the 
legumes and take nitrogen from the air to help maive 
the plant food. In this lesson we are to learn of 
another kind of bacteria living in milk and causing it 
to sour. In the first place, milk sours because bac- 
teria from the air fall into it, begin to grow, and 
soon change the sugar of the milk to an acid. 

These bacteria are in the air, in water, in barn 
dust, on bits of hay and on the cow. They are most 
plentiful in sour milk, and if we should pour a little 
sour milk into the fresh milk it would sour more 
quickly. The same thing happens when people put 



154 O.XE lUXDHED LESSOXS IX 

fresh milk into poorly cleaned pails. It follows that 
all utensils used in the dairy should he thoroughly 
sca.lded so as to kill all the germs that cause the milk 
to sour quickly. 

Not only do these germs which cause the sour- 
ing of the milk get into it, but the germs of con- 
sumption and typhoid fever will also thrive in milk, 
and thus endanger the health and liscs of all who 
drink it. The following precautions in the care of 
milk should be known and learned bv a/.l who supply 
us with this valuable food: 

1. Avoid pitching hay or making beddings in 
the barn soon before milking time, if the cows are to 
be milked in the Ijarn. for more germs fall into the 
milk if the air is full of dust. 

2. The milker should wear clean clothes,, should 
have clean hands, and should never wet his hands with 
the milk. 

3. For greater cleanliness and safety the milk- 











O'V °^" 

a — Pure. b — Bacteria 

PURE AND IMPURE MILK 
(Courtesy of B. F. Johnson Pub. Co.) 



ELEMENTARY AGKICULTUEE 155 

man should curry the sides of the cow, and moisten 
the parts nearest him to prevent dust from falling" 
from the cow into the milk. 

4. The first few streams of milk from each teat 
should be thrown away, because the milk at the mouth 
of the teat has been exposed to the air, is full of germs, 
and will cause the rest of the milk to sour sooner. 

5. Every vessel used in the handling of the milk 
should be scrupulously clean. 

6. The surface of the milk should not be left 
exposed to the air of the cellar, living rooms, or any 
place where dust and germs may fall into it. 

7. To test for formalin in milk, pour sulphuric 
acid into the milk, letting it run down the side of the 
glass. A purple color at the junction of the milk and 
acid, indicates the presence of formalin. 



156 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON LIX 

Title. — The Babcock Test for Butter-fat in Milk. 

Season. — May be a Winter lesson. 

Object. — To become familiar with the Babcock method 
of showing the richness of milk. 

Material. — A hand-power Babcock tester, at least two 
milk test-bottles, one pipette to measure the milk, 
one acid measure, about one pint of sulphuric acid, 
a few ounces of milk and some hot water. A good 
tester can be obtained from D. H. Burrell & Co., 
Little Falls, N. Y., at small cost. Sulphuric acid 
is sold at all drug stores. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

If the school can not be provided with a Babcock 
tester, this lesson will have to be omitted. The les- 
son is such an important one, and the ownership of a 
Babcock tester by the school would be such a valu- 
able thing for the whole community, that the teacher 
should make every effort to get the material for this 
lesson. 

Because of its simplicity, accuracy, and ease of 
operation, the Babcock test has become the standard 
test for determining the value of milk and cream as 
delivered to the cheese factories and creameries all 
over this country. 

Complete directions for using come with every 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 157 

machine, and it will not be necessary to give them 
here. Have some pupil bring a sample of milk from 
one of the cows at home. The sample should be tak- 
en soon after the milking is done, and the milk has 
been poured two or three times from one vessel to an- 
other so as to be thoroughly mixed. Take about a half 
cupful as a sample and put it into a clean bottle. From 
this bottle the sample is drawn for testing, after mix- 
ing the contents of the bottle thoroughly. 

Having determined the per cent of butter-fat in 
the sample, an estimate can be made of the total 
amount of butter-fat in a gallon of milk. (A gallon is 
estimated at 8}^ pounds.) 

Make many tests of the same cow's milk to deter- 
mine its richness. A pound of butter-fat should make, 
in ordinary practice, about i . i pound of butter, and the 
pupils can compare the price paid for butter, and for 
the butter-fat, if sold at the creameries, and determine 
which method of sale is better. 

If the school is in a dairy district, this lesson will 
furnish work for several weeks, and be profitable to pa- 
trons as well as to pupils. 



158 O^K HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON LX 

Title.— Sheep. 

Season. — A Winter lesson. 

Object. — To learn some facts about sheep, and to 

judge the types. 
Material. — A sheep before the class. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Sheep raising is especially profitable in AVest Vir- 
ginia, and in the schools of this State, it would be 
well to emphasize the study of this farm animal. Dis- 
cuss with the class the following points about sheep : 

1. Sheep are found in almost every latitude, and 
they can find -sustenance and thrive where other ani- 
mals can scarcely live. 

2. Sheep provide man with meat and clothing, 
and are among the most profitable of animals. 

3. Sheep increase rapidly, mature early, furnish 
wholesome food, and improve the land on which they 
are pastured. 

4. Sheep are docile, rather easily handled, live on 
a great diversity of food, and require less grain than 
any other kind of live stock. 

5. Much food is wasted on the ordinary farm 
that would maintain a small flock of sheep. 

6. Sheep may be divided into two classes, wool 



i;i !■: \i i:\ iakv a( kiculture 



159 



Q '^ 

B B 

o 

o m 




IGO ONE HUXDRED LESSONS IN 

breeds and mutton breeds. Of the wool breeds, Amer- 
ican Merino, Delaine Llerino, and Rambouillets are 
the standard types. 

Of the mutton breeds, Southdown, Shropshire, 
Horned Dorset, and Cheviot are the standard types. 

Open the fleece of the sheep and observe the clean 
skin in which the fibres grow. These fibres are so 
rough that they keep the dirt to the outside. 

Wool is valuable in proportion to the length and 
evenness of the fibre and the density of the fleece. 

Answer the following questions taken from Bur- 
kett, Stevens and Hill : 

I. How many pounds ought a fleece of wool to 
weigh ? 

Which makes the better clothing, coarse or fine 
wool ? 

3. Why are sheep washed before shearing? 

4. Does cold weather trouble sheep? Wet 
weather? 

Use the following score card from Purdue Univer- 
sity, Indiana, and mark the score for each sheep before 
the class : 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



161 



STUDENTS' SCORE CARD — SHEEP. 



Mutton Sheep. 



SCALE OF POINTS. 



D 



E 



I 

A. Age Teeth 

B. General Appearance 

Weight — Estimated lbs. 

Actual lbs. according to age 6 

Form, low, compact, symmetrical . . 6 
Quality, bone and wool fine ] 7 

Constitution, as seen in girth, skin, 

and fleece 10 

C. Head and Neck. 

Muzzle, fine ; mouth and nostrils of 

good size ; lips thin 1 

Eyes, bright, full, whites clear 1 

Face, short 1 

Forehead, broad 1 

Ear=-', fine, erect 1 

Neck, thick, short 1 

Forequarters. 
Shoulders, smooth, well covered ... 6 

Chest, wide, deep 6 

Brisket, thick and carried well 

forward 4 

Legs, straigb% short, strong, well 

set, arm full, shank smooth 3 

Body. 
Back and Loin straight and wide... 8 

Ribs well sprung, deep I 4 

Flanks low, making straight 

underline 

F. Hindquarters. 

Hips well apart, smooth 4 

Rump long, level, wide 5 

Thighs full 5 

Twist plump, deep 4 

Legs straight, short, strong ; 

shank smooth 

G. Wool. I 

Quality fine, soft, clean, even I 3 

Densi y great 3 

Length good ( 3 

Yolk 1 

Total 100 



Score. 



W QJ 



Animal. 
Owner. 
Date. . . 



Fine Wool 
Sheep. 



Score. 



4 
5 
9 

10 



I 11 

I 6 

5 

I * 
[100 



Breed 

Student 

Grnde of Student. 



162 



ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 




H 

- =* 

O 

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ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 162 



LESSON LXI 

Title.— The Hog. 

Season. — A Winter lesson. 

Object. — To study swine and learn to judge them. 

Material. — A hog before the class. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

For this lesson take the class to see some good 
breed of hogs or have a good specimen brought to 
the school yard. 

The first point to mention is the hog's structural 
adaptation to the life he leads. The skeleton is heavy 
and low, allowing great accumulation of weight in 
flesh and fat. The snout is strong and tough for 
rooting, and the eyes are set below the ears, indi- 
cating his ground-feeding habits. 

The chief value of the hog is its production of 
meat, and if properly cared for, will bring the farmer 
more money than any animal on the farm. 

The most desirable type of hog has short legs, 
heavy shoulders, small dished head, straight back and 
straight under-lines, and heavy hams. "The razor 
back" hogs are very unprofitable, and will not gain so 
rapidly under feeding. 

The following story is quoted from Burkett, Ste- 
vens and Hill : 



1G4 



ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



"A boy whose parents were too poor to send him 
to college, once decided to make his own money and 
get an education. He bought a sow, and began to 
raise pigs. He earned the food for both mother and 
pigs. His hogs increased so fast that he had to work 
hard to keep them in food. By saving the money he re- 
ceived from the sale of the hogs, he had enough to 
keep him in college." 

The following are some standard breeds of hogs : 
1. Chester White 5. Poland-China 

Yorkshire 6. Duroc- Jersey 

3. Tam worth 7. Cheshire 

4. Berkshire 8. Victoria. 

Hogs will do better when kept as little as possible 
in pens. When hogs are kept in pens, cleanliness is 
most important to reduce the danger of disease. 

Have the class score the hog, using the following 
score-card of Purdue UniA-ersity, and marking the 
points as they judge: 



ELEMEXTARY ACRICULTURE 



1G5 




1C6 



OiXE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LARD HOGS. 



MARKET. 



SCALE OF POINTS. 



GENERAL APPEARANCE — 30 Points: 

1. Weight, score according to age 

2. Form deep, broad, low, long, symmetrical, 

compact, standing squarely on legs.... 

3. Quali y, hair silky ; skin fine ; bone fine ; 

mellow covering of flesh, free from 
lumps and wrinkles 

4. Condition, deep, even covering of flesh, es- 

pecially in region of valuable cuts 

5. Temperament mild, quiet 

HEAD AND NECK — 8 Points: 

6. Snout, medium length, not coarse I 1 

7. Eyes full, mild, bright 1 

8. Face short, cheeks full 1 

9. Ears flne, medium size, attached neatly.... | 1 

10. Jowl strong, nest broad, firm | 2 

11. Neck thick, medium length, smooth to | 

shoulder 2 

FOREQUARTERS — 12 Points: 

12. Shoulder broad, deep, full, compact on top.. 8 

13. Breast advanced, wide 2 

14. Legs straight, short, strong, bones clean ; 

pasterns upright ; feet medium size 2 

BODY — 32 Points: 

15. Chest deep, broad, large girth 4 

16. Sides deep, lengthy, full ; ribs close and 

well sprung 8 

17. Back broad, straight, thickly and evenly 

fieshed 9 

18. Loin wide, thick, straight 9 

19. Belly straight, even 2 

HINDQUARTERS — 18 Points : 

20. Hips wide apart, smooth 3 

21. Rump long, level, wide, evenly fleshed, [ 

straight I 3 

22. Ham heavily fleshed, plump, full, deep, wideil 10 

23. Legs straight, short, strong ; bone clean, I 

pasterns upright; feet medium size....! 2 



a <u 
3 " 



Total I 100 



Animals 
Student 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



167 



9> 

Mp O 





168 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 

.Questions: — i. At what age marketed? 

2. Average weight then ? 

3. Present price? 

4. Symptoms of hog cholera? 

5. Good preventions? 

6 At the present price of corn and hogs, would 
it pay hest to feed it to hogs or sell it by the bushel^ 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 169 



LESSON LXII 

Title.— Poultry. 

Season. — May be a Winter study. 

Object. — To learn some facts about farm poultry, 

and to learn to judge standard types. 
Material. — Poultry for observation. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Arrange to have a specimen of a good breed of poul- 
try before the class for this lesson. It would be bet- 
ter to visit some poultry farm. 

Present the following facts about the fowls and 
discuss them with the class : 

1. The domestic fowl is used for egg production, 
meat production, feather production, and pest destruc- 
tion. 

2. The last census showed that the farmers get 
about 150 million dollars annually from the sale of 
the eggs alone. 

3. To increase egg production the hens should 
have an abundance of water, nutritious food, and dry, 
warm, well lighted houses. 

4. Geese, ducks, and turkeys are not so generally 
raised as hens, but there is an increasing demand for 
these fowls. 

5. The use of the incubator is extending each 
year to supply the large demand for chickens. 

6. One important fact to learn is thei proper 
feeding for egg production. This is best secured by 



170 



ONE HUNDEED LESSONS IN 



feeding mixed grains, green grass, cut and steamed hay, 
(clover), alfalfa hay, roots, sand, and some kind of 
meat. In the winter ground bone, meat-meal, beef 
scraps, etc., should be provided, since the hens can 
get no insects to make up the needed meat diet for 
egg production. It has been found that the nutritive 
ratio of the food for hens should be about i -.4. That 
means that they should have a large amount of protein 
foods in proportion to the carbon foods, i. e., more 
seeds, grass, and meats than corn. 

7. The standard varieties of hens are as follows : 
Egg-breeds — Leghorn, Minorca. Meat-breeds — 
Brahmas, Cochins. General purpose — Plymouth Rock, 
Wyandotte. Fancy breeds — Bantam, Polish. 

Use the following score-card and have each pupil 
mark the points for the fowl before the class : 



STUDENTS' SCORE CARD — POULTRY. 



Sex 



Exhibitor. 



WEIGHT. 



Shape. 



Typical Carriage 

Weight 

Comb . . 

Beak - 

Eyes 

Head 

Crest and Beard i 

Wat. and Lobe 

Neck 

Wing 

Back 

Tall 

Breast 

Boyd and Fluff 

Legs and Feet 

Hardin's of F 



Color. 



Condition 



Defects 



Score 



KLEM EXTAKY AGRICULTURE 



171 




COLONY HOUSE 



ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON LXIII 

Title. — A Study of Feathers. (Adapted from The 
Cornel). Leaflets, 

Season. — May be a Winter lesson. 

Object. — To study the use of feathers to the fowl, and 
to learn the different kinds of feathers on the dif- 
ferent parts of the body. 

Material. — A fowl of any kind brought to school in a 
coop. The same fowl used in the previous les- 
son could be used for this lesson. While it is 
kept at school it should be supplied with food and 
water. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Have the fowl in the school room a few hours be- 
fore tlie lesson is given. Encourage the children to 
find out as many facts as they, can for themselses be- 
fore the school opens for work. Direct the observa- 
tions of the pupils by a few questions, as : the kind 
of feathers ; the location of the different kinds ; any 
part of the body not covered with feathers. Suggest 
a little competition by asking which boy or girl can 
give the greatest number of facts from his observation 
of the feathers of the fowl. 

At class time, the teacher should remove the fowl 
from the coop, and hold it firmly by the legs to pre- 



KT.EMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



173 



vent fright and injury. Allow the children to come 
near. 

1. Have the pupils feel the difference between 
the heat of the hen's body beneath the feathers and on 
the outside of the feathers. Explain. Bring out the 
point that the feathers are non-conducting, and ask 
what value this serves the fowl. 

2. Spread the wings and tail so that the different 
feather sections may be seen. Note that in the wing 
and tail, one feather overlaps the other so that each 
feather braces the other in flight. 

3. Observe the lighter wing feathers, (the sec- 
ondaries) tucked under the heavier feathers, (the pri- 
maries). What kind of feathers are in the tail? Are 
they different from those of the wings? What use 
do the .tail feathers serve? 




BROODER HOUS: 



174 



Oj>fE nUXDEED LESSONS IX 




THE FEATHERS OF A HEN 
Showing their relative size, shape and position. 1, Neck hackle; 
2, Breast ; 3, Wing shoulder covert r 4, Wing flight/ covert ; 5, Wing 
primary ; 6, Wing secondary ; 7, Wing covert ; 8, Back ; 9, Cush- 
ion ; 10, Main tail; 11, Fluff; 12, Thigh. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



175 



4. Notice how the back feathers overlap each 
other. Why this arrangement? If the feathers shed 
easily without pain to the hen, take one feather from 
each of the following places and fasten on a sheet of 
paper for comparison: i. Neck feather; 2. Breast 
feather; 3. Wing shoulder covert; 4. Wing flight 
covert ; 5. Wing primary ; 6. Wing secondary ; 7. 
Wing covert; 8. Back; 9. Cushion; 10. Alain tail; 
II. Flufif ; and 12. Thigh. See figure for corres- 
ponding numbers. 

4. Have pupils make drawing sketches of these 
feathers. 

5. Make a drawing of a large primary feather, 
and name the parts : fluff, tip, quill, barb, and web 




CURTAIN FRONT LAYING HOUSE 



176 



ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON LXIV 

Title. — A study of the Egg. (Adapted from the Cornell 
Leaflets.) 

Season. — May be a Winter study. 

Object. — To observe the variations in eggs, the charac- 
teristic types, and to learn something of the struc- 
ture and composition of the egg. 

Material. — A collection of eggs from as many different 
kinds of poultry as possible, a neat box with good 
cover, blow pipes or straw, and a pair of balances 
or scales, and saucers. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 



Ask each pupil in the school to bring- one or two 
hen-eggs, turkey-eggs, or any other fowl eggs, for this 
lesson. 

I. Tabulate in the note-book the record of the 
collection as follows : 

(Number each egg with ink on the shell.) 



"d 








• 




bo 


(H 






j 






H 


u 














« 




1 

1 Weight 


1 


K . 




<4-i 


<D 


di 


ra. 


■a a 


<u 




.C 


M 




3 CS 


d 


o 


H _ 


in 


Eh 


0,2; 


Q 


1 
i 


















ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 177 

2. After this data has been recorded, a small 
hole might be broken in each end of the egg, the blow- 
pipe or straw inserted, and the contents blown out, so 
that the egg shell may be preserved in a neat box as 
an interesting collection. From time to time, pupils 
might be encouraged to get the shells from the eggs 
that are used at home, to add to the collection. The 
contents of the eggs, blown, should be held in saucers, 
one to each pupil. 

3. Observe the structure of the raw eggs in the 
saucers. Find the "germinal disc"' which appears as 
a light colored spot, usually on the upper surface of 
the yolk. This germ spot contains the life principle of 
the egg. Note the whitish cords of denser albumen 
which serve to keep the yolk properly suspended in the 
white of the egg. 

Note the clear, watery appearance of the v/hitc 
of the egg. This is the albumen, the food in liquid 
form upon which the young chick lives while in the 
shell. (If the contents do not come out whole, an- 
other egg must be broken for this part of the lesson.) 

4. The chemical composition of the dry substance 
of the inside of the egg is (Sn3'der: Poultry Book.) : 

Protein. Fat. 

White (albumen) 88.92 .53 

Volk 20.62 64.43 

5. Make a drawing of the egg shell obtained 
above. 

6. If it is not possible to boil the eggs at the 
school, ask each pupil to bring a boiled egg for this 
part of the study. 



178 OXE IIUXDKEI) LESSONS IN 

Ccirefully remove the shell piece by [r!cce. Ob- 
serve the air space, and the two membranes beneath 
the shell. Cut the egg lengthwise through the mid- 
dle, and make a drawing of the section, showing all 
the points mentioned in paragraph 3. 



ELEMENTARY A.GBICULTURE 179 



LESSON LXV 

Title. — Food Studies. 

Season. — A Winter lesson. 

Object. — To learn the most important food compounds 

and the relative food values of common foods. 
Material. — An egg, a potato, some nuts, fat meat, salt, 

-and water. Cheese and crackers, bread, butter and 

sugar. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

I. When one thinks of the study of foods he 
thinks at once of domestic science rather than of ele- 
mentary agriculture. But intelligent endeavor in ag- 
ricultural practices concerns itself with the use of food 
products, both for the farm animals and for the home 
table. It is an economic as well as a health factor 
that we cannot afford to overlook. Until the recent 
pure food law became effective, we were at the mercy 
of the manufacturers and the grocers in their practice 
of adulterating, substituting, coloring, and preserving 
much of our food-stuffs. 

It would be an excellent part in the presentation 
of this lesson, for the teacher to get a few samples of 
properly labeled canned food-stuff, such as beans, ba- 
con, berries, syrups, peas, etc., and show the pupils 
how to recognize the inspection stamp, under the pure 



180 



ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



food law of June 1906. Emphasize the fact that only 
• such approved goods should be purchased. 

Thoroughly learn these facts — that food for man, 
and the higher vertebrate animals, may be classified 
into, proteids, carbo-hydrates, fats, mineral matter, and 
water. It is from these compounds that animals get 
life, heat, and energy. 

The examples of food given above contain all the 
elements of nutrition. It would be well to have these 
samples before the class, and to explain which food 
element predominates in each one. 

2. Have pupils copy into their note-books and 
learn the followinsf table: 



Proteid-food. 


Carbo-hydrate 
food. 


Fat-food. 


Lean meat. 


Starches. 


Seeds. 


White of egg. 


Sugars. 


Nuts. 


Curd of milk. 


Potatoes. 


Fish. 


Gluten of wheat. 


Grains. 


Butter. 


Cheese. 


Vegetables. 


Fat mea-ts. 


Beans. 


Crackers. 


Oils. 


Bread. 


Honey. 





Green corn. 



Minerals. 



Water. 



Salt. Water. 

Mineral Milk. 

water. Vegetables. 



]\Iany of the foods mentioned above contain two 
or more of the foq4 compounds given at the head of 
the table, but they are classed under the compound 
which they have in greater prominence. The human 
body has these five compounds in its make up, hence 
the food must contain them, if the body is to live and 
grow. 

3. The following table, prepared from Bulletin 
28, Office of Experiment Stations, Dept. of Agiiculture, 
Washington, D. C, shows the composition of common 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



181 



food materials. It should be copied into the pupils' 
note-books, studied and discussed by the teacher and 
class. This bulletin may be secured for five cents. 



FOODS. 










gd 


d 


"■53 









u 




CU b 




OhII. 


Ckfc 



s -2 

<U I ci 
o o I- 



Sirloin steak 1 12.8 54. 

Beef, dried | 4.7 | 53.7 

Tomato soup | | 90 . 



Maclierel 

0y.sters 

Eggs 

Whole milk . . 
Cheese (cream) 
White bread . . 
Soda crackers 

Honey 

Beans (Lima) 
Cabbage . . 
Potatoes . . 
Corn (green) 
Tomatoes . . 
Goose 



44.7 



40.4 
88.3 
65.5 
87. 
34.2 
35.3 
5.9 



15. 
20. 



17.6 



68.5 

77.7 

62.6 

76.1 

94. 

38.5 



16.5 


16.1 


26.4 


6.9 


1.8 


1.1 


10.2 


4.2 


6. 


1.3 


13.1 


9.3 


3.3 


4. 


25.9 


33.7 


9.2 


1.3 


9.8 


9.1 


7.1 


. 7 


1.4 


.2 


1.8 


.1 


2.8 


1.2 


1.2 


.2 


13.4 


29.8 



5.6 



3.3 



5. 

2.4 
53.1 
73.1 
81. 
22. 

4.8 
14.7 
19. 

4. 






.9 

8.9 

1.5 

.9 

1.1 

.9 

.7 

3.8 

1.1 

2.1 



.7 
.9 
.8 
.9 
.6 
.7 



182 ONE HUNDEEU LESSONS IN 



LESSON LXVI 

Title. — Food Proportions and Requirements. 

Season. — Winter lesson. 

Object. — To learn proper food piX)portions and some 

good dietaries. 
Material. — Some butter^ bread, sugar, cheese, crackers, 

and dried beef, 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

1. This lesson should foHow immediately upon 
the preceding one, and before drawing any conclusion 
from the facts presented in the last lesson, we should 
bring out this point, that cooking changes the mechaa- 
ical and often the chemical nature of the foods, that 
it improves the flavor and kills all germs. It rup- 
tures the walls of the starch cells, softens the protein 
of the tissues, and tends to harden the albuminoids. 
There are serious defects in the process of cooking 
and preparing foods. For example, potatoes pealed 
and soaked for some time before cooking, loose 52% 
of nitrogenous matter ; when pealed and put into cold 
water and boiled, they loose 16% of it; the ideal way 
of cooking potatoes is to boil them with the skin on. 
Domestic science will correct all such errors. 

2. Food requirements. 

It has been found that an adult at moderate mus- 
cular work, requires food daily in the following pro- 
portions : 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 183 

*Protein — one-fourth pound ; Fat — one-half pound ; 
Carbo-hydrates — one and one-fourth pound. 

It would be an interesting part to this lesson to 
weigh out the following foods before the class, that the 
pupils may see the amount and proportions, constitut- 
ing good dietaries : , 

(a) butter, 8 oz. 
bread, 24 oz. 
sugar, 6 oz. 

(b) cheese, 12 oz. 
crackers, 24 oz. 

These simple -dietaries are approximate estimates 
of a fairly balanced daily food ratio for an adult do- 
ing medium labor. This does not include the water 
which should constitute a large portion of the food of 
a day. 

3. In the business of farming the same principles 
apply to the feeding and managing of stock. The pro- 
portion of available protein to the other available nu- 
trients, is called the nutritive ratio. 

A cow should be fed a ration of i to 5.4; a horse, i 
to 7, under average conditions. Ten per cent of the food 
value is lost when a horse is required to stand in a 
cold stall or to fight flies. The science of stock feeding 
is a large and very important field for study. 

The nutritive .'"atio for a growing boy and girl is 

1 to 5.2. 

It would be a good practice to make up several 
food dietaries with the proper ratios from the forego- 
ing tables. 

• NOTE. — Later Yale experiments prove that an adult needs only 

2 oz. of protein, daily. 



184 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON LXVII 

Title, — Tests for Food Compounds. 

Season. — Winter lesson. 

Object. — To learn how to make tests for the common 

food compounds. 
Material. — Caustic potash, copper sulphate (blue 

stone), egg, corn or wheat, starch, iodine, potato, 

and nuts. 



SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Pupils should become familiar with the terms, 
protein, starch, fat, etc., and they should know many 
facts about these nutrients. They may make tests for 
them in certain foods. 

I. To test for protein. Prepare a solution of 
caustic potash, 1-5 oz. to 2 oz. of water (warm). Dis- 
solve a piece of copper sulphate, about Y2 inch in di- 
ameter in two ounces of warm water. Place a small 
quantity of white of t.^% on a plate and cover it with^ 
the caustic potash solution. Warm gently. Pour a 
small quantity of the copper sulphate solution over 
this, and stir with a clean splinter. The color will 
remain the greenish blue of the copper for ten or fif- 
teen minutes, when a bright violet will spread through 
the solution. This shows the presence of protein which 
was in the ^^%. Wheat, corn, and all the grains ma}' 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 185 

be crushed and treated in the same way to show the 
presence of protein. 

2. To test for carbo-hydrate (starch). Crush a 
piece of potato and partly dissolve in hot water. In- 
troduce a splinter into the iodine bottle, and transfer 
the iodine adhering to the splinter into the potato so- 
lution and stir. The blue color that forms is the test 
for starch. Seeds of various kinds may be crushed and 
boiled in water, and the water tested for starch in the 
same way. 

3. To test for fats. Nuts and small seeds may be 
crushed and heated on white paper. The grease spot 
that appears will indicate the presence of oils. 

Tabulate and learn the above facts 



186 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON LXVIII 

Title. — Determining Rations for Farm Animals. 

Season. — A Winter lesson. 

Object. — To learn how to balance rations so as to keep 

the animal in good condition, and to use economy 

in feeding. 
Material. — Note-book and pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Animal food-stuffs contain the same elements 
used in human foods, that is, protein, carbo-hydrates, 
and fat. The percentages of these ingredients found 
in the standard animal foods are given in the table 
appended to this lesson. By the nutritive ratio is 
meant the proportion of protein to carbo-hydrates and 
fats combined. 

The following formula illustrates the method of 
finding the nutritive ratio: 
Carbo-hydrates-|- (fatX2.4) 

^ ^nutritive ratio. 

protein 
For example, suppose we wish to find the nu- 
tritive ratio of the following ration : (Horse weighing 
I, GOO pounds, doing mediimi work.) 

Timothy hay 15 pounds 

Corn 10 pounds 

Cotton-seed meal 3 pounds 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



187 



Solution : — • 

In I GO pounds of timothy hay there is 86.8 lbs. 
dr}^ matter, 2.8 protein, 43.4 carbo-hydrates, and 1.4 
fat. 
In 15 pounds hay there are: 

15-100 of 86.8 dry matter, 13.02 pounds. 

15-100 of 2.8 protein, 42 pounds. 

15-100 of 43.4 carbo-hydrates, 6.51 pounds. 

15-100 of 1.4 fat, .21 pounds. 
In 10 pounds corn there are: 

10-100 of 89.1 dry matter, 8.91 pounds. 

10-100 of 7.9 protein, .79 pounds. 

10-100 of 66.7 carbo-hydrate, 6.67 pounds. 

10-100 4.3 fat, .43 pounds. 
In 3 pounds cotton-seed meal there are : 

3-100 of 91.5 dry matttr, 2.74 pounds. 

3-100 38.1 protein, 1. 14 pounds. 

3-100 of 16.0 carbo-hydrate, .48 pounds. 

3-100 of 12.6 fat, .378 pounds. 



Carbo- 
Dry matter Protein hydrate. Fat. 


Timothy. 15 lbs 

Corn, 10 lbs 

Cottonseed meal, 3 lbs 


13.02 
8.91 
2.74 


.42 

.79 

1.14 


6.51 

6.67 

.48 


.21 
.43 
.378 


Total 


24.67 


2.35 


13.66 


1.018 



Substituting in the formula given above, 

i3.66+(i.oi8X2.4) 
=6+. Nutritive ratio is i to 6. 

2-35 
This Ave see is a proper ratio for the horse re- 



188 



ONE HUNDBED LESSONS IN 



ferred to above. One-fourth for breakfast, one-fourth 
for dinner and one-half for supper would be the proper 
division of this ration. 

Problem — Find the nutritive ratio for 15 lbs. of 
clover hay an.d 5 pounds of oat straw, and 10 pounds of 
oats. 

STOCK FOODS — AVERAGE OP DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS. 



Digestive nutrients in 100 
pounds. 



NAME OF FOOD. 



Green food and ensilage 

Corn fodder 

Rye fodder 

Kentucky blue grass. 

Red clover 

Cow-pea vines 

Corn ensilage 

Hay and dry fodders — ^- 

Corn stover 

Timothy hay 

Red clover 

Cow-pea vine hay . . 

Oat straw 

Wheat straw 

Grain and other seed — 

Corn 

Oats 

Cow-peas 

Mill products — 

Corn meal 

Wheat bran 

Cottonseed meal .... 



20.7 
23.4 
34.9 
29.2 
16.4 
20.9 

59.5 
86.8 
84.7 
89.3 
90.8 
90.4 

89.1 
89.0 
87.8 

85.0 
88.1 
91.6 



1.0 
2.1 
3.0 
2.9 
1.8 
0.9 

1.7 
2.8 
7.6 
10.8 
1.2 
0.4 

8.0 

9.2 

20.0 

5.5 
12.2 
38,1 



fa 



0.4 
0.4 
0.8 
0.7 
0.2 
0.7 

0.7 
1.4 
2.0 
1.1 
0.8 
0.4 

4.6 
4.2 
0.8 

3.5 

2.7 

12.6 






11.6 
14.1 
19.8 
14.8 
8.7 
11.3 

32.4 
43.4 
38.4 
39.0 
38.6 
36.3 

65.9 
47.3 
53.2 

63.8 
39.2 
16.0 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTtJEE 189 



LESSON LXIX 

Title. — Feeding Standards for Farm Animals. 
Season. — A Winter lesson. 

Object. — To give data for calculating feeding rations. 
Material. — Paper and pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

The teacher should give several problems snnilar 
to the one suggested in the last lesson, and also have 
the pupils make up their own problems for feeding 
rations of the different animals mentioned in the tab.ie 
below. 

PER DAY FOR 1,000 POUNDS LIVE WEIGHT. 

The Animal. Dry Matter. Nutritive Ratio. 

Lb«. 

Fat cattle 30 1:6.5 

Milch cows . . . .' 27 1 :S . 

Horse (light work) 20 1:7. 

Horse (heavy work) 26 1:6. 

Sheep, growing wool 23 1 :S . .5 

Fattening sheep 30 1:5.4 

Fattening swine . 32 1:6. 

For assignment of work in this lesson each pupil 
should compound a maintenance ration having the 
amounts and nutritive ratios given above, for at least 
three of the animals. 

Note — It should be remembered that protein builds 
flesh, bone, blood and internal organs, and may be 
used to serve as the fat. Fat furnishes heat, en- 
ergy and body fat, so also does the carbo-hydrates. 



190 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON LXX 

Title. — An Outline of the Animal Kingdom. 
Season. — At any time.. A good lesson to precede the 

study of insects. 
Object. — To learn the divisions of the animal kingdom. 
Material. — Note"book and pencil. 

Jr^UBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

All the animal life in the world may be classed in 
eight groups, represented by forms familiar to almost 
every one. It would be worth the effort for the sake 
of future studies in animal life to commit to memory 
the following outline of the animal kingdom : 

1. Protozoa. Microscopic forms in stagnant Vva- 
ter. 

2. Porifera. The sponges. 

3. Coelenterata. The coral. 

4. Echinodermata. The star-fish. 

5. Vermes. The fish-worm. 

6. Mollusca. Snails and Mussels. 

7. Anthropoda. Spiders and insects. 

8. Vertebrate. The horse. 

Each of these sub-kingdoms is divided into classes, 
orders, genera, and species. Two very important sub- 
kingdoms to agriculture are the Anthropoda and the 
Vertebrata. These are subdivided as follows : 



ELEMENTARY AGKtCULTCTRE 



191 



Sub-kingdom, — Arthropoda — 
Class I. Crustaceans, the crayfish. 
Class 2. Arachnida, the spider. 
Class 3. Myriapoda, the centiped. 
Class 4. Insecta, the insect. 

Order i. Orthoptera, the grasshoppers. 
Order 2. Lepidoptera, the butterflies. 
Order 3. Diptera, the flies. 
Order 4. Hemiptera, the bugs. 
Order 5. Neuroptera, the dragonflies. 
Order 6. Hymenoptera, the bees. 
Order 7. Coleoptera, the beetles. 
Sub-kingdom, — Vertebrata — 
Class I. Pisces, the fish. 
Class 2. Aves, the birds. 
Class 3. Amphibians, the frogs and toads. 
Class 4. Reptilia, the snakes and turtles. 
Class 5. Mammalia, the cows, horses, etc. 
The mammals have nine orders represented by 
the sloth, sea-cow, whales, ground moles, bats, rab- 
bits, minks, hoofed animals, and man. 

It is an interesting fact that so many of these 
groups are represented by animals to be found in al- 
most every locality. Pupils should make a list of all 
the animals they can think of in their neighborhood. 

See how well the pupils can classify their lists 
into these large groups. 



192 ONE HUNDBED LESSONS IN 



LESSON LXXI 

Title. — The Orders of Insects. 

Season. — Spring or Autumn. 

Object. — To learn the different orders of insects. 

Material. — Note-book and pencil. 

SbBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Pupils should make an outline in their note-books, 
from the facts presented in this introductory lesson 
on insects. 

Note — Insects are characterized by three segments 
of the body ; — head, thorax, and abdomen ; three pairs 
of jointed legs and usually two pairs of wings. The 
differences in the wings distinguish the different or- 
ders of insects. A few are without wings. 

Insect bodies are covered with a more or less har- 
dened skin, their eyes are compound, and their mouths 
are adapted for biting or sucking. There are usually 
four stages in the life history of the insect ; the egg, 
the larva, the pupa, and the adult. The length of life 
history varies from a few hours to several years. 
There are more than 250,000 species of insects, grouped 
in the following orders, as given in the preceding les- 
son : 

I. Orthoptera. Four wings, front pair. thickened, 
the hind pair thin and folded. Hind legs usually devel- 



ELEMENTART AGEICULTUBE 193 

Oped for jumping. Mouths adapted for biting anfi 
chewing. The grass hopper, locust, cricket, etc. 

2. Lepidoptera. Four wings, covered with over-' 
lapping scales ; mouth parts modified into a long pro- 
boscis ; the larva are caterpillars, butterflies and moths 
are examples. 

3. Diptera. Two wings, thin and membraneous, 
rudamentar}^ modifications in the form of balancer 
knobs ; mouth of most species adapted for biting and 
piercing; the larva are footless maggots. The house- 
fly, mosquito and blue bottle fly are examples. 

4. Hemiptera. Four wings, usually half hardened 
and half membraneous, sometimes the wings are ab- 
sent ; mouthparts adapted for sucking; body flat, and 
legs slender. These are the true bugs. The squash 
bug, the bed bug, the louse, etc., are examples. 

5. Neuroptera. Four thin, membraneous, nerve'- 
veined wings; large eyes; slender bodies; mouth parts 
adapted for biting. The dragon fly and damsel fly are 
examples. 

6. Hymenoptera. Four transparent wings ; 
heavy bodies, usually provided with stings in the fe- 
males ; mouths adapted for biting and lopping. The 
bees, wasps, ants, etc., are examples. 

7. Coleoptera. Four wings, the outer pair a' 
horny sheath "for the inner membraneous pair, partly 
folded beneath ; strong legs ; mouth parts adapted for 
for biting on pinching ; the larva large and worm-like. 
Beetles are examples. 

The teacher should return to this lesson after 
the series of lessons on insects has been completed, and 



194 ONE HUNDRED LESSOXS IX 

have the pupils make a Hst of as many insects as they 
can from each order. 

It would be a good device to require each pupil 
to hand in a collection, consisting of one of each of 
the above orders of insects. 




INSECT NET 
(Courtesy of Orange- Judd Co., Davis Agriculture. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 195 



LESSON LXXII 

Title. — The Grasshopper. 

Season. — Autumn. 

Object. — To study the structure and habits of the 

grasshopper. 
Material.'" — A grasshopper for each pupil, note-book 

and pencil. 

ST B.JECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

In making' this study of the insects, the pupils 
should first draw a whole body view of the insect, and 
then make such notes and answer such questions as 
are asked in the lesson outlines. Determine all an- 
swers from observation, 
(i). Observe in the field: 

Its method of locomotion. 

Its protective coloration. 

Its enemies. Its sounds. Its haunts. 

2. With the living insect, try to find the breath- 
ing spiracle, just above the base of the middle legs. 
Watch the opening and closing of the lips of this 
breathing pore. Put the grasshopper under a glass 
and see if it will eat grass or leaves. Perhaps it has 
spit "tobacco juice" on you. Why does he do this? 
How much further can he jump than the length of his 
body? 



196 ONE HUNDEED LESSONS IN 

3. In what ways do the hind pair of legs differ 
from the others? 

Of what advantage are the hooks and spines on 
the legs? 

Count how many joints there are on each leg. 

4. Study the wings. How does the front pair 
compare with the hind pair? How are the hind wings 
folded? By rubbing the upper and lower wings togeth- 
er, the grasshopper sounds are made. Make a draw- 
ing of the wings. 

5. Study the mouth parts. These are the most 
difficult of all the external parts to see. Find the fol- 
lowing parts : 

1. The upper lip, a two-lobed labruni, 

2. A pair of blackish horny mandibles, covered 
by the upper lip. 

3. A pair of jointed maxillae below the man- 
dibles. 

4. A two-lobed lower lip, the labium. If the 
grasshopper is dead separate these mouth parts and 
draw them. 

6 The female has at the end of the abdomen, four 
points called the ovipositor. These are used for mak- 
ing an opening into the ground to receive the eggs. 
Young grasshoppers are called nymphs and resemble 
the adults in every way except that their wings are 
tuideveloped. 

7. Count the segments of the abdomen. Observe 
on each side of the abdomen, a groove and just above 
it a row of breathing spiracles. Observe the thin mem- 
braneous depression on the first segment of the ab- 
domen. This is supposed to be the ear. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



197 



8. Observe the eye. Perhaps you can see that 
it is made up of many divisions. The grasshopper has 
two compound eyes and three simple eyes. Try to 
find these. 

9. What other insects belong to the grasshopper 
family? 

*Note — For killing insects prepare a cyanide bottle as 
follows : Break potassium cyanide into small 
pieces and put into the bottom of a wide mouthed 
bottle. Avoid the deadly poisonous fumes. Pour 
over the pieces, just enough water to cover them. 
Add plaster of paris, until the water is absorbed. 
Leave unstoppered until the contents are dried, 
then cork tightly. Insects dropped into the bottle 
will die. Keep the bottle from children. 





KILLING BOTTLE. GREEN STRIPED LOCUST 

(Courtesy of Orange- Judd Co., Davis Agriculture.) 



198 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON LXXIII 

Title.— The Butterfly. 
Season. — Spring or Autumn. 
Object. — To study the butterfly. 

Material. — A cabbage butterfly for each pupil. Note- 
book and pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Every country boy or girl knows the white cab- 
bage butterfly, and its associate the sulphur butterfly. 
With freshly killed specimen take up the study as fol- 
lows: 

1. ]\Iake a drawing of the whole body, showing 
the characteristic markings. 

2. How many segments to the body? What 
are the appendages from these segments? 

3. How do the legs compare with those of the 
grasshopper ? 

4. Write a descriptive sentence about each of 
the following points of the wings : action ; shape ; over- 
lapping; scale-covering; and vein-structure. 

5. How many segments to the abdomen? Are 
they like those of the grasshopper? 

6. Examine the mouth of the butterfly. Find the 
coiled tube which it uses to obtain the nectar from 
the flower. With a pin uncoil it and note its length. 



ELEMEXTARY AGRICULTURE 199 

/. Answer the following points on the observa- 
tion of a live butterfly : 

1. Its manner of flight. 

2. The kind of food, and the manner of feeding. 

3. The natural enemies of the butterfly. 

4. The position of the wings when at rest. 

8. A\'hat is the damage done by the cabbage but- 
terfly ? 

It should be remembered that the common toad is 
the best friend we have in the garden to rid the cab- 
bage of this pest. 

9. What is the life-history of the butterfly? This 
question will be asked in connection with all the in- 
sects we shall study, therefore a general answer should 
probably be given to make this point clear. The cab- 
bage butterfly lays its eggs, attached singly, usually 
to the lower surface of cabbage leaves. They are 
small, and are pale-yellowish in color. These hatch 
into larva^ the so-called cabbage worms. After these 
have fed upon the cabbage leaves for some time, they 
spin from their mouths a silken pod around them- 
selves ; this pod is called the pupa. The pupa is usually 




CABBAGE BUTTERFLY 
(Courtesy of Orange- Judd Co., Davis Agriculture.) 



200 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 

found on old fences or posts. In a short time the 
pupa ruptures, and a full grown cabbage butterfly 
walks out, dries its wings and flies away to begin the 
life history of a new generation. 

ID. If you can get a moth compare it with the 
butterfly as follows : 

1. Difference in the feelers. (Antennae). 

2. Manner of folding the wings when at rest. 

3. Time of flying, day or night. 

4. Comparative size of bodies. 

Note — Butterflies and moths belong to this family of 
insects. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTUBE 201 



LESSON LXXIV 

Title.— The Fly. 

Season. — Autumn. ■ 

Object. — To learn of the fly and of the dangers of the 

house-fly. 
Material. — A house-fly for each pupil of the class. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

1. Make a drawing of the common house-fly. 

2. Write a sentence on each of the following 
points, based upon your own observation of a live fly l 

1. The rapidity of the wing motion. 

2. Its manner of eating. 

3. Their favorite haunts. 

4. How many wings has the fly? Look under 
the wings and try to find the little white knobs, called 
the balancers. 

5. Note how rough and hairy the legs and feet of 
the fly are. 

Would they hold filth and dirt so that it could be 
carried? 

6. How does the abdomen of the fly compare 
with other insects we have studied? Covmt the seg- 
ments of the abdomen. 

7. The life history of the fly family may be 
studied easily in the school-room. Expose out of doors 
a bit of lean meat, so that the eggs may be laid upon 



202 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 

it. The hlue-bottle fly will lay eggs upon meat. Fill 
a tin-can or box with sand, and on a chip in the center 
oi it place the bit of meat with the eggs on it. Invert 
a glass tumbler over it, and push the rim of the tum- 
bler down into the sand to prevent the escape of offen- 
sive odors. In a few hours the eggs will hatch, and in 
a few days the larva will be fully grown. They will 
probablv crawl under the chip to change into pupae. 
They may come out soon as adult flies, or they may re- 
main over winter in this stage. The house-fly lays 
its eggs in manure and filth and is transformed through 
the same stages of life history. 

Rules Against Flies. 

1. Flies are very dangerous in the spread of dis- 
ease, therefore we should not allow any decaying or- 
ganic matter to accumulate, in which they can breed. 

2. If the cellar is damp, clean out the dark and 
damp corners and apply lime. 

3. Pour kerosene into the drains and also treat 
with kerosene all waste materials not intended for fer- 
tilizers. 

4. If kitchen waste is deposited in large cans, it 
should be removed at least once a week. 

5. Kitchen waste intended as food for hogs 
should be removed and used daily. 

6. Haul out the manure and spread it on the soil 
every day, or put it in a screened box to be emptied 
over the fields or gardens at least once a week. 

7. If inconvenient to haul the manure at short 
intervals, treat it with kerosene or gypsum. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



20S 



8. Keep up the work of destroying adult flies by 
the usual methods and judiciously screen against 
them. 

9. Flies are born and breed in filth ; they are 
among the worst agencies in the spread of typhoid fe- 
ver, and every means possible should be used to ban- 
ish them from our homes. 




THE FLY 
lOourtesy of Orange-Judd Co., Davis Agriculture.) 



204 ONE HUNUKED LESSONS IN 



LESSON LXXV 

Title.— The Bugs. 
Season. — Autumn. 

Object. — To become familiar with the bug family. 
Material. — A squash bug, or "stink bug," or harvest 
fly for each pupil in the class. 

ST B.JECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

]f it is possible to catch a two-year cicada, some- 
times called "dog-day harvest fly," or improperly, the 
locust, this will make the best specimen for the study 
of the true bugs. If none of these can be got, a squash 
bug will illustrate the characteristics of all bugs. 

1. Draw the view of the whole body. 

2. How many wings are there. Note in the 
squash bug that the front half of the wing is horny 
and that the back half is membraneous. 

3. Note the triangular prominence of the thorax 
on the back. 

4. Observe the mouth parts. Describe their 
structure. What does the bug's mouth show as to 
his manner of eating.? 

5. For what kind of locomotion are the legs 
adapted? 

6. Find the eyes and feelers. Write a sentence 
describing each. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



205 



7. What is the life history of the squash bug and 
cicada? 

8. All the bugs belong in this family, together 
with the plant lice, tree hoppers, scales, etc. 

.9 This is an injurious family of insects, and the 
kerosene emulsion spray is the means of combatting in 
most cases. 




DOG-DAY HARVEST FLY 
(Courtesy of Orange-Judd Co., Davis Agriculture 1 



206 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON LXXVI 

Title.— The Dragon Fly. 

Season. — Autumn. 

Object. — To study the form and life of the dragon fly 

Material. — A dragon fly for each member of the clas^. 

Si BJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

1. Dragon or damsel flies will have to be caught 
with a net. They are usually seen flying about the 
ponds or streams of water. 

2. Answer the following questions from the ob- 
servation of a living specimen : 

1. What is their habit of flight? 

2. AVhat is their food? 

3. How do the dragon fly and damsel fly dift'er 
in habits? 

4. What is the position of the wings at rest? 

3. After killing the dragon fly in the cyanide bot- 
tle, straighten its wings and legs and draw the whole 
body view. 

4. How do the legs compare with those of the 
grasshopper? 

5. How many wings are there? Write a descrip- 
tive sentence about them. 

6. Note the enormous development of the eyes 
What would this indicate as to their habit of life? Find 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



207 



the three small simple eyes, and tell where they are 
located. 

7. Write a descriptive sentence about the abdo- 
men. How many segments? 

. 8. Does the dragon fly have a sting? 
9. The life history: — The eggs are laid in the 
water. They hatch into a nymph, a form resembling 
the adult without wings. In this stage they live in 
the water, and eat greedily upon small Avater insects. 
At this stage they are beneficial in eating mosquito 
larva. When the nymph is fully grown it crawls out 
of the water, upon some convenient rock or reed, fas- 
tens its feet firmly, splits down the back, and the adult 
dragon fly crawls out, dries itself, and is soon ready for 
aerial life. 

10. The dragon fly is a beneficial insect because it 
preys upon other insects that are pests to us. 




A DRAGON FLY 
(Courtesy of Orange-.Judd Co., Davi.s Agriculture.) 



208 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON LXXVII 

Title.— The Bee. 
Season. — Autumn. 

Object. — To study the structure and life of the bum- 
ble bee. 
Material. — A bumble bee for each member of the class. 

SL BJECT-MxVTTER AND METHOD 

1. Answer the following questions on the bum- 
blebee based upon fieldl observation. 

1. What kind of flowers do they feed upon? 

2. Are they shy while feeding? Will they sting 
then ? 

3. Do they stay long at each flower? 

4. What do they gather from the flower? 

5. Explain how they help the flower. 

6. How does its manner of flight compare with 
that of the butterfly? 

2. Kill the bee in the cyanide bottle, and make 
a drawing of the body. 

3. Note the large body in comparison to the 
wings. Do you think that the wings easily wear out? 
How many wings are there? 

4. Are the legs of the bee all alike? Explain. 

5. Try to find the mouth parts and the tongue. 
Write a descriptive sentence about them. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



209 






Queen. 
HONEY BEE 



210 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 

6. Can you see any value in the hairy covering of 
the bee's body? 

7. Find the sting of the bee, and remove it. 
There is a poison gland at the root of the sting, which 
pours a fluid into the wound made by the sting, caus- 
ing the painful sensation with which every bo}^ is fa- 
miliax*. 

8. Where does the bumble bee make its nest? 
What is it made of? 

9. Life histor}' : — The eggs are laid in the cells. 
The second stage is the wormlike creature, the larva, 
lying inactive in the cell. It must be fed and it is a 
big eater. When it is fully grown it spins a silken 
coccoon about itself and enters the next stage. The 
third stage is the pupa. Here it remains quietly con- 
cealed within its coccoon, over which the workers 
spread a thin layer of wax, making a cell of it. After 
a time it cuts its way through the top of the cell, and 
comes forth a fully developed bumble bee. 

10. To this family be.longt the wasps, hornets, 
sawflies, gallflies, ants, and honey bees. 

Note — If it is desired to make an extended study of 
the honey bee as an insect for farm use, write to 
Mr. Frank Benton, of the Division of Entomology, 
Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, for his 
Bee Book and other circulars. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



211 





Queen. 
HONEY BEE 



212 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON LXXVIII 

Title.— The Beetle. 

Season. — Autumn. 

Object. — To learn something of the structure and life 

habits of the beetles. 
Material. — A beetle for each pupil in the class. Any 

species will answer the purpose. Blister beetles 

may be found on goldenrod in autumn. The black 

ground beetles are also common. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

1. Alake a drawing of the beetle. 

2. How many wings has the beetle? With a 
freshly killed specimen in hand, extend the two horny, 
sheath wing-covers, which meet by smooth edges along 
the middle of the back, completely covering the thin 
membraneous wings beneath. Spread out all four of 
these wings and make a drawing to show the wing 
arrangement. 

3. Write a descriptive sentence about the mouth 
parts. Are they made for sucking or chewing and bit- 
ing? 

4. Write a sentence telling of the size and posi- 
tion of the eyes. 

5. How many joints in the beetle's leg? De- 
scribe the claws. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



213 



6. How maii}^ segments in the abdomen? Com- 
pare the upper and lower surfaces. 

7. Where do beetles live? Find as many differ- 
ent kinds as you can. 

8. Life histor}^ : — The beetle has all the four sta- 
ges : egg, larva, pupa, and adult. The egg of the beetle 
hatches into grubs, wire worms, borers, etc. In this 
stage they do great damage to the crops, trees, and 
other vegetation. From the grub stage they pass 
into a pupa stage similar to all other insects. The 
pupa is usually in the ground from which they emerge 
as adult beetles. 

9. Most of the beetles are very injurious insects, 
the tiger beetles and lady beetles excepted, and since 
they are usually chewing insects, the treatment is a 
lead arsenate or Paris green spray. 




GROUND BEETLE 

a, Larva; b. Adult. 

(Courtesy of Orange- Judd Co., Davis Agriculture.) 



214 



ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON LXXIX 

Title. — Spraying Calendar. 

Season. — At any time. 

Object. — To learn how to combat insect and 'fungous 

pests. 
Material. — Note-book and pencil. 



SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Copy the table given below into your note-book, 
and study it so that you can write it from memory 
when the first column is given you. 



Insect Pest or 
Fungous Disease. 


When to Spray. 


With What to Spray 
or Treat. 


Leaf-eating insects 


When insect appears. 


Paris green or lead 
arsenate. 


Sucking insects 


When appearing. 


Kerosene emulsion or 
mi.'?cible oils, if no 
foliage. 


Scale insects 


Before buds open in 
spring. 


Lime-sulphur wash. 


Coddling moth and 
fungous injury 


Just after apple blos- 
soms fall. 
Treat before planting. 


Bordeaux mixture and 
lead arsenate com- 
bined. 


Potato scab 


Two per cent solution 
of formalin. 


Striped melon beetle 


When young plant 

appears. 
Before buds open. 


Tobacco dust or lime. 


Fruit rot, leaf curl 
and blight 


Bordeaux mixture. 


All borers 


Spraying not effective. 

Whenever they ap- 
pear. 


Dig out with wire and 
coat tree trunk with 
tar or lime wash. 


Slugs 


Hellebore. 


Peach yellows 


Spraying not effective. 


Cut down all diseased 
trees and burn. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



215 




SPRAYING APPARATUS 



21G ONE Ilt'NDKEI) LESSONS IN 



LESSON LXXX 

Title. — Value of Birds to Agriculture. 

Season. — May be a Winter lesson. 

Object. — To learn something of the value of the birds 

to the farmer. 
Material. — Note-book and pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Some Facts About Birds. 

The native birds are one of the nation's most val- 
uable assets. If the birds were destroyed, in a very 
few years the insects will have mutiplied to such an 
extent that our trees would be defoliated, and our 
crops destroyed. This is not fancy but plain facts. 

It has been found by observation and dissection, 
says Chas. K. Reed, that a Cuckoo consumes daily 
from 50 to 400 caterpillars, and that a Chickadee will 
eat from 200 to 500 insects or up to 4000 insect eggs. 
One hundred insects a day is a small estimate of the 
quantity consumed by insect eating birds, and most of 
our birds are insect eaters. Not only do they destroy 
great numbers of insects but they eat great quantities 
of weed seeds as well. The State of Illinois loses 
annually about $20,000,000 by the ravages of insects. 

It is the duty, and it should be the pleasure of 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 217 

every citizen, to do all in his power to protect these 
valuable birds, and to encourage them to remain about 
our homes. 

Practical Problems. 

1. Suppose that the damage from insects in your 
State is 25c an acre. How much would that be 
for the whole State? 

2. If there were three birds on every acre, how 
many birds would there be in this State? 

3. If each bird eats 25 insects a day (a very low 
estimate), how many insects would be destroyed in 
this State during the months of June, July, and Au- 
gust ? 

4. If 120,000 insects fill a bushel basket, how 
many bushels of insects would the birds eat during the 
summer from the above estimate? 

5. Suppose that one-fourth of the birds in this 
State, as calculated above, would eat one-fourth of an 
ounce of seed daily, how many pounds of weed seeds 
would our birds destroy in three months? 

The forces that work against the increase of bird 
life are : man ; the climatic elements ; accidents ; cats ; 
other animals; birds of prey, and snakes. How can 
we help the birds in their struggle against these ene- 
mies? Each one of us can do something, and every 
time we save the life of one bird, we have not only 
done a kindness to the creatures we should love, but 
we have rendered service to the cause of agriculture. 



218 



ONE HUNDRED LESSON.S IN 



LESSON LXXXI 

Title. — A Comparision of the Agricultural Products of 
Your State with Those of Other States. (Adapt- 
ed from Davis Agriculture.) 

Season. — A Winter lesson. 

Object. — To teach pupils how the products of their 
state compare with the products of other states. 

Material. — Note-book and pencil. 

RTBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Take the data from the Year-book of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture for 1905, and fill out the tabulation 
below : 



STATES 1 CORN | WHEAT OATS 


HAY 


1 

1 Acres, Value Acres Value Acres 

1 


Value 


Acres 


Value 


1 
West Virginia .... 1 














Ohio 1 














1 
































1 
I 










































































1 
Kentucky 


















































ELEMENTARY AGKICULTURE 



219 



Construct a similar table for the data on live stock. 

1. Horses: number, and value. 

2. Mules : number, and value. 

3. Milch cows : number and value. 

4. Sheep : number and value. 

5. Hogs : number and value. 



The Year-book may be secured free from the De- 
partment of Agriculture, AVashington, D. C, through 
your Congressman or Senator. 



220 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON LXXXII 

Title. — Crop Records, (Adapted from Davis Agricul- 
ture.) 

Season. — At any time. 

Object. — To teach pupils how to keep records of crops 
in ?. field. 

Material. — Note-book and pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

It is an important business matter for the farmer 
to keep year by year a record of the production of each 
field. This lesson should impress upon the pupils the 
importance of keeping such records neat and accurate. 
Use the form below, and require each pupil to keep a 
record of one of the fields at his own home. Neatly 
fill out the form in the agricultural note-book, and add 
the data from time to time as the field is farmed. 



Name P. O , 

Crop Previous Crop 



Kind of Soil 




No. of Acres 














Preparation of the Soil. 






Date of plowing 


Date of Cultivation 


Depth of plowing 


Implement used 


Cost of plowing . . . 





Cost of prep, seed bed 








» 





ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 221 





Seeding 


and 


Cultivation. 


Date of seeding . . 






Cost of fertilizer 


Amount of seed . . . 


Dates of cultivation 


Cost of seed 




Fertilizer used 


Cost of cultivation 







Harvest. 

Date of harvest Quality of the harvest 

Cost of harvest Yield, grain 

Total cost of the crop Yield, fodder 

Insect injury Yield per acre 

Fungous injury Net profit per acre . . . 



222 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON LXXXIII 

Title. — An Estimate of the Cost and Receipts of a 

Good Crop Rotation. 
Season. — A Winter lesson. 
Object. — To calculate the net proceeds of a ten acre 

field in a crop rot&tion of two years with clover, 

corn and wheat. 
Material. — Note-book and pencil. 

Slbject-matter and method 

Have pupils compare the data given in the ten acre 
rotation below, witli) prices and conditions in their 
home vicinity. The figures below are the actual rec- 
ord of an Illinois field under standard cultivation con- 
ditions : 



Clover sown in wheat in March — 

Number of bushels 1 

Cost of seed $6 . 50 

Cost of labor $1 . 25 

Wheat cut in July. Threshed and marketed — 

Yield ; 200 bushels 

Value of yield $160 . 00 

Total cost of labor $17 . 50 

Pasture in clover in the Fall — • 

No. of head 5 

No. of months 2 

Income from pasture $12 . 00 

Clover hay harvested next June — 

No. of tons 12 

Price per ton $5 . 00 

Cost of labor $12 . 00 

Clover seed crop in the Fall. Husked and marketed — 

No. bushels yield 15 

Value of yield $90 . 00 

Cost of labor $20 . 00 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTUKE 223 

6. Plow for corn the followiug Spring, and plant — 

Cost of labor $10.00 

Cost of seed (H/, bushels) $1.00 

Four cultivations Cost of labor for cultivation $7.50 

7. Seeding wheat in the corn in September — 

Cost of seed, 11/, bushels per acre $12.00 

Cost of labor $-1.00 

8. Corn harvest. In the Fall — • 

Number of bushels ' 500 

Value of the yield $200 . 50 

Cost of labor $15 . 00 

Let the students calculate the total cost, and re- 
ceipts of this rotation, and the net gain on one acre f.r 
one year. 

The last census shows that the average annual 
crop per acre in this country is valued at $ii. How 
does this annual crop compare with the average? 



224 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON LXXXIV 

Title. — Preventing Grain Smut. 

Season. — Previous to planting any grain. 

Object. — To learn how to treat grains to prevent smut. 

Material. — Bacteria cultures and the seed. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Smut has been quite prevalent in the grain fields 
throughout the country, and there are still a number 
of farmers who have not learned the simple formalin 
method of preventing it. If the school will make sim- 
ple demonstration lessons upon grains brought in by 
the pupils from the farms, much good can be done, 
and great injury prevented among the grain fields. 

In time before the corn, oats or wheat is to be 
planted, get about a pint of formalin, and have it on 
hand for this lesson. Ask some pupil to bring a bush- 
el of oats or wheat to the school for this demonstra- 
tion. Mix about one-half ounce of formalin in two gal- 
lons of water. Spread the seed thinly upon the floor, 
(if n'ot on the school floor, a barn floor nearby might 
be used), and sprinkle the seeds with the mixture un- 
til they are all thoroughly moistened. Cover closely 
with a blanket of some kind for a few hours, and the 
seeds are ready for planting. Try this and the per- 
cent of smut at the next harvest will be materially 
lessened. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 225 

If this work be done for all those who bring seed 
to the school, or if it be done at the homes of the 
community because of the demonstration at the school, 
it will be an instance of service which will prove new 
lines of helpfulness for a school in a community. 



22G OXE nrxDu:^;) lzsso.vs in 



LESSON LXXXV 

Title. — Treating the Legumes for Bacteria. 

Season. — Previous to planting the seed. 

Object. — To learn how to get a "catch" of clover or 

cow peas. 
Material. — Bacteria cultures and the seed. 

SI B.JECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Few farmers have realized the value of treating' 
the seeds of clover and other legumes before planting 
to insure the presence of nitrogen-fixing l^actcria. The 
school should treat such seeds as a demonstration for 
the farmers of the community, and as a valuable les- 
son for the pupils. 

Send to the Secretary of Agriculture. AA'ashington, 
D. C, for the bacteria cultures for legumes, and di- 
rections for using. These bacteria will come from 
Washington in a dried condition, resembling yeast 
cakes. Dissolve them in water and supply with nutri- 
ent salts. Two of the Sacli's plant-food tablets to a 
pint of water, referred to in a former lesson, will fur- 
nish the nutrition for the bacteria. After the watjr 
solution becomes milky with the growth of the bac- 
teria, pour the legume seeds into this solution and leave 
for a few hours. Then dry the seeds carefully and 
they are ready for sowing. 



ELEMEXTAKY AGRICULTURE 227 

Some very marked results have been shown by the 
"catching" of clover on soils which Avould formerly 
not grow that crop. 



228 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON LXXXVI 

Title. — Roads and Road-making. 

Season. — Autumn or Spring. 

Object. — To learn something of the value of good 

roads, and some of the principles of road-making. 
Material. — Note-book and pencil. Team of horses, 

wagon, plow, spades and gravel. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

In the presentation of this important lesson the 
teacher should attempt to do two things : First, to 
have a regular text-book recitation upon the values 
and principle of roads ; and second, to direct the work 
of real road construction, if no other than- a properly- 
made path from the school-house door to the main 
road. 

* Part I. 

I. Our life in the country will never be as attrac- 
tive as it ought to be until we have good roads. Bad 
winter roads that pen the young people in their homes 
for many months, cause them to grow to dislike the 
country, and to join that throng of restless humanity 
moving steadily toward the cities. Will not the young 
people who love their country homes enter into this 
crusade for better roads? 



ELEMENTARY AGKICULTUKE 



229 



All industrial interests are affected by the nature 
and conditiou of the country roads, over which the 
products of the farm are transported to market, but it 
is the farmer who suffers most from the inferior road.s 
which constitute so large a percentage of the road sys- 
tem of the United States. Over our country roads 
there are annually hauled at least 250,000,000 tons. A 
system of better roads would reduce the cost of haul- 
ing this volume of freight one-half or two-thirds of 
what it now costs them. Lead the class to see the 
following values of good roads : 

I. 

2. A saving of time. 



The direct saving in dollars and cents. 




A BAD ROAD 
(Courtesy of B. F. Johnson Pub. Co.) 



230 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 

3. Makes country life more desirable. 

4. Makes school and church attendance more 
convenient. 

5. More humane to horses. 

6. Helps every industry of the city. 

As a part of the preparation of this lesson each 
pupil should write a brief essay upon one of these top- 
ics. 

2. Points in the construction of a good road: 

1. A level road or gradual grade whenever 
possible. 

2. The road bed, highest in the middle and 
sloping to each side, having a fall of one inch to 
three or four feet. 

3. Under drains in wet places, and side ditches 
to carry off surface water should furnish the drain- 
age necessary for good roads. Water, standing or 
running in roads is the great destroyer of good roads. 

4. The surface should be hard and smooth. A 
good surface is made by putting a layer of larger stones 
at the bottom, a layer of smaller stones next, and 
crushed stone or gravel as the top layer. 

5. Ordinar}^ earth roads can be improved by 
proper grading and drainage. The best time to do 
this is in the Spring after the ground is settled. 

6. Drains should be kept open, and all depres- 
sions filled. 

Pupils should write a paragraph on one of these 
topics, in their note-books. 



ELEMEXTAKY AGRICULTURE 



231 



Part II. 

for the second part of this lesson it might be 
possible at the school, to construct a path from the 
school house to some desired point a few rods away, 
according to the best principles of road-making. 

If some of the larger boys or some school patron 
would furnish a few loads of coarse stone, a few loads 
of gravel, a plow and a team for a few hours, an inter- 




A GOOD ROAD 
(Courtesy of Orange-Judd Co., Davis Agriculture.) 



232 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 

estiiig and profitable demonstration of good road-mak- 
ing could be made at the school. 

1. Select the line for the road or walk. 

2. Measure ofif a space six feet wide, the entire 
length of the walk to be constructed, and mark it with 
stakes. 

3. Plow up the whole area, turning it toward the 
middle. Then with spades or a scraper, if the space 
is large, grade it up from the sides to the center, so 
that the center is about one inch higher than the level 
of the ground where it is not plowed. 

4. Place a layer of coarse stones over this surface 
next, and a layer of gravel or finer stones over the 
coarser stones. Smooth it all over so that the walk 
gradually slopes from the center to the ditch, left 
at the side by the plow's furrow. 

5. The walk is now ready for use. The side ditch 
or drain should be kept open, and the road bed proper- 
ly graded. ^ 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTUBE 



233 



LESSON LXXXVII 

Title. — An Assessment of Farm Values. 

Season. — May be a Winter study. 

Object. — To learn how to assess the property for tax 

on the home farm. 
Material. — Note-book and pencil. 

SIJBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Have each pupil make a list of the real and per- 
sonal property owned by his parents, with values such 
as could be received from sale. Use the form given 
below, and make a neat record of the assessment in 
the note-book : 

Assessment Record. 



Name of Farm 



Date 



10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 



PROPERTY. 



Acres of land 

Buildings 

Horses 

Cattle 

Sheep 

Hogs 

Poultry 

Farm machinery 

Oats 

Wheat 

Corn 

Household furniture . . . 

Hay 

Money in bank or notes 



Number 



Valuation 



Total 

Rate of taxation 
Total tax 



234 ONE IIUNDREU LESSONS IN 



LESSON LXXXVIII 

Title. — Farm Work-shops and Experimental Labora- 
tories. 

Season. — A Winter lesson. 

Object. — To learn something of the value of a work- 
shop and laboratory to the farmer. 

•Material. — Note-book and pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

1. Every farmer should have a building, or room 
in some building, in which he can do experimental 
work with plants, soils, etc., and in which he can do 
wood working, forging in iron, and general shop work. 
A shop well equipped with carpenter's tools, a forge 
and anvil, work-bench and its equipments would save 
the farmer many dollars and much time in the repair- 
ing of his implements and buildings. This same work- 
shop might be provided with apparatus for seed test- 
ing, fruit pruning and grafting, soil testing and analv--^- 
ing, and various other chemicals and apparatus used 
in experimental work with plants and animals. Tt is 
through intelligent experimenting and careful read- 
ing that the farmer of the future is to take his place 
successfully among the industrial peoples of the coun- 
try. 

2. A room so equipped on every farm would fur- 
nish interesting and profitable work during the winter 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 235 

months, and the results of the experiment in these lab- 
oratories might be profitably applied on the farm. 

The following is a list of materials and furnish- 
ings that might be useful in the farm laboratory : 

1. Work-bench and carpenter's tools. 

2. Forge and anvil, with necessary tools accom- 
panying. 

3. Medicine case with drugs for animaVj;; and 
chemicals, such as, formalin, sulphuric acid, ammonia, 
copper sulphate, lime, sulphur, lead arsenate, Paris 
green, hellebore, phosphoric acid, potash, sodium ni- 
trate, etc., etc. 

4. Tight case for various seeds. 

5. Boxes of clay, sand and humus soils. 

6. Table for general experimental work. 

7. Water supply and means of heating the room. 
The pupils and teacher may add other materials 

to th£ above room, and as a part of the w^ork of 
this lesson, the pupils should draw the ground-floor 
plan of such a room as described above, and indicate 
in their plan, where they would place tl'.e difi'erent 
furnishings of the shop. 



236 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON LXXXIX 

Title. — Farm Machinery. 

Season. — A Winter lesson. 

Object. — To learn some facts regarding farm machin- 
ery, to encourage the use of improved machinery, 
and to understand the importance of caring for and 
repairing farm machinery. 

Material. — Note-book and pencil. Various farm im- 
plements. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

1. The drudgery of farm life is gradually being 
reduced by the invention and improvement of farm 
tools and machines. The following comparisons show 
the great development in farm implements : 

THE OLD WAY. THE NEW WAY. 

The hoe. The horse-drawn cultivator. 

The grass cycle. The horse mower and rake. 

The grain cradle. The steam-drawn harveS'ier. 

The single plow. The steam gang plow. 

The corn knife. • The corn reaper and husker. 

The "up and down churn." The "quick coming" churn. 

2. Points in the care of farm machinery: 

1. The farmer must know how to manage his 
machine. 

2. Farm machine must not be left in the field 
to rust and rot. 

3. As soon as any tool or machine has fin- 



ELEMENTARY AGKICULTURE 237 

ished its work for the season it should be carefully 
cleaned and housed. 

4. Every machine, implement, and vehicle 
should be properly oiled. 

5. All needed repairs should be promptly made. 

6. "Such care which is neither costly nor bur- 
densome will add many years to the life of a machine." 

3. If the school is in a town, the teacher should 
go with the class to an implement store and observe 
the different farm machines, tools, and implements. 

4. Make a list of the different kinds of plows, 
harrows, reapers, planters, and grain separators that 
you know' of. 

5. Each pupil should make a list of the different 
farm implements at his home, and the make of each 
implement. 



23S ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON XC 

Title.— The Water Supply. 

Season. — At any convenient time. 

Object. — To learn some facts about water and to ap- 
preciate the value of pure water and the dangers of 
impure water. 

Material. — Clean test-tubes or bottles, sulphuric acid, 
potassium permanganate, nitric acid, silver ni- 
trate, barium chloride, ammonium oxalate, impure 
water from a pond, and pure water. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

1. There is nothing of more importance to the 
health, comfort, and convenience of a farm and house- 
hold than an abundant supply of pure water. It is 
not easy to find absolutely pure water. Some of the 
impurities in drinking water are harmless ; others are 
very injurious. The most dangerous impurities in wa- 
ter are the minute plant forms, called bacteria. One 
kind of bacteria occasionally found in drinking water, 
causes the typhoid fever. It is impossible to judge by 
the appearance or taste, whether water contains these 
dangerous bacteria. It may be perfectly clear and have 
the finest taste, and yet be unsafe to drink. 

2. Sources of drinking water are : 

I. Springs. Spring water is almost always 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 239 

pure if the spring is deep and a good distance from 
foul places such as barnyards and open drains. 

2. Lakes and reservoirs. Water supplied to 
cities is often taken from rivers and lakes, and puri- 
fied to a certain extent and stored in reservoirs. If 
there is any doubt about the purity of the city water, 
people are advised to boil it in order to kill all the 
dangerous bacteria. 

3. Wells. If wells are on a lower level than the 
barns or outhouses, they are likely to contain water 
with the dangerous bacteria in it. If any surface wa- 
ter can drain into the well it renders the water im- 
pure and unfit to drink. The land should not slope 
to the well from any house or barn, and the well cov- 
er should be perfectly tight to prevent animals from 
getting into it. 

3. Good rules for drinking water : 

1. If there is any doubt about the purity of 
drinking water it should be boiled. 

2. Allow no standing water about the farm 
premises, for it may be the source of contamination for 
the drinking water. 

3. Do not drink out of the cup at public drink- 
ing places, nor from the common cup or dipper often 
Lised in the school-room, for many disease germs 
are carried from one mouth to another, through the 
common drinking vessel. Pupils should have their 
own individual drinking cups. 

4. Always have clean fresh water for the farm 
animals, for their health and growth depends as much 
on the water supply, as does our own. 



240 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 

4. Simple tests for mineral and organic impuri- 
ties in water: , 

If this lesson is given in a school that has the ma- 
terial named above, the following tests will prove in- 
teresting and valuable : 

1. Test for animal or plant matter — 

Fill a clean test-tube half full of the drinkir.i;- 
water. Add a drop or two of concentrated sulphuric 
acid, and sufficient potassium permanganate solution 
to color the water. Heat gentl)^ to the boiling point. 
If the color changes to a brownish tint, it indicates 
the presence of organic matter. 

2. Test for chlorides — • 

To a test-tube half full of water, add a few drops 
of nitric acid, and then a few drops of silver nitrate so- 
lution. If there is any cloudiness, it shows that the 
water had traces of chlorides in it. 

3. Test for sulphates — 

To a test-tube half full of water add a few drops 
of barium chloride solution. If there is a whitish pre- 
cipitate, it indicates the presence of sulphates in the 
water. 

4. Test for lime compounds — 

To a test-tube half full of water add a few drops 
of fresh solution of ammonium oxalate. A white pre- 
cipitate indicates the presence of calcium or lime com- 
pounds. 

As a note-book record of this lesson, the pupils 
should write an essay on the Water Supply, bringing 
out the facts they have learned, and showing the at- 
titude they have toward the subject. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 241 



LESSON XCI 

Title. — Cultural Requirements for Vegetables. 

Season. — Spring. 

Object. — To learn some requirements for vegetable 

culture. 
Material. — Note"book and pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Have pupils copy the following' table in their note- 
books and learn it so that they can fill it out from 
memory when the column of vegetables is given : 



242 



OXE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



The Vegetable. Soli Requirement. 



Season 
Requirement. 



Care 
Requirements 



1. Radish. 



2. Beet. 



3. Turnip. 



4. Potato. 



5. Sweet potato. 



6. Onion. 



7. Cabbage. 



8. Spinach. 



9. Lettuce. 



10. Celery. 



Sandy loam soil, | Short season crop, 
loose and rich, i 



Loose, deep, cool, | Full season, 
rich soil. 



Cool moist soil. I Short season. 



Deeply pulverized, j 
cool soil, rich in { Early planting, 
potash. full season. 



Loose, warm soil, 

sandy loam. ^ Long season. 
I Sunny. 

Moist rich soil 
with loose sur- 
face. 



Cool season. Early 
and late. 



Cool deep soil. Full season. 



Cool moist soil. 



Spring and Fall 
crop. 



Mellow, moist soil, i Short season. 



Cool, rich, moisi j 
soil, well pre- Full season, 

pared. i 



Clean cultivation. 

Protect from 

maggot. 

Good tillage. 

Weeds kept 

down. 

No care after 
sowing. 

Level culture, fre- 
quent tillage, 
spray against 
beetles. 

Clean tillage, wood 
ashes fertilizer. 

Good surface tilth. 
Good seed needed. 

Frequent tillage. 
Destroy the worm. 

Grow in drills. 



Good soil 
ration. 



The best surface 
tillage, blanch- 
ing. 



12. Bean. 



13. Tomato. 



14. Cucumbers, 
Melons, etc. 



15. Asparagus. 



Light soil. 



Light, sandy loam. 



Short season. 



"Warm season; 
partial. 



Rich, "quick" soil.. Long, warm 
season. 



Loose, rich, well i Long, warm 
prepared seed- ! season, 
bed. 1 



Grown in drills. 
Easy culture. 

Clean tilth. Poles 
for tall varieties. 

Hill planting. 
Careful pruning, 
and frame sup- 
ports. 



Frequent tillage 
until vines run. 
Combat melon 
bee lies. 



Deep, rich, moist, 
cool soil. Fer- Full season. i 

tilize often. Perennial. j 



Cut in fall and 
top dress with 
manure. Cease 
cutting in early 
summer. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTUKE 



243 



LESSON XCII 

Title. — Knot-tying in Ropes. 
Season. — A Winter lesson. 

Object. — To learn how to tie useful knots in ropes. 
Material. — A few feet of rope for each pupil in the 
class. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD. 

I. The tying of useful knots, rope splicing, mak- 
ing of hitching ropes, halters and other useful things 




USEFUL KNOTS 
(Courtesy of G. A. Allen, Manual Training School, Indianapolis, Ind.) 



244 ONE HUNDEED LESSONS IN 

of this kind, are industries that belong to the farm, 
and should be included in a course of agriculture for 
the schools. The teacher should provide a rope and 
make models of each of the eight knots shown in the 
figure, and hang them up before the class. 

2. Each pupil should have a piece of rope about 
one yard in length, and practice making these knots 
until he can do it with ease. 

3. Names of the useful knots : 

a. The single loop. 

b. The overhand knot. 

c. The overhand knot repeated. Used to keep 
the rope from slipping before making the square knot 
in tying bundles. 

d. The square or reef knot. A strong knot 
which will not untie by pulling, but which can be 
easily broken and untied. 

e. The loop knot. Used in making a halter 
that will not slip. 

f. The figure of 8 knot. 

g. The slip knot. Commonly used in hitching 
horses to racks. 

h. The bowline knot. Used in tying the an- 
chor of ships. 



ElEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 245 



LESSON XCIII 

Title. — Fences. 

Season. — At any time. 

Object. — To learn something about fences, their ma- 
terial, construction, and care. 

Material. — Note-book and pencil. Fences for observa- 
tion. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

1. The construction and care of the farm fences 
are indications of the thrift or shiftlessness of the far- 
mer. If the fences abgut the yard, gardens, and fields 
are neatly kept, not allowed to fall into ruin, and the 
weeds and bushes be cut from the rows and corners, 
it is a sign that the farmer takes a pride in his home 
and farm, and that he is successful in all the details of 
his business. The scarcity of timber is necessitating 
the use of wire, and hedging for fencing purposes. The 
various wire fences, supported by the locust or catalpa 
posts are perhaps the best fences to construct at the 
present time. 

2. Have the pupils make a list of all the kinds 
of fences they have on the home farm. Explain how 
they are made, tell how long they have been construct- 
ed, and in what condition they are at present. 



24G OXE HUNDRED LESSONS ^N 

3. Teacher and class should go, at the concliJ«''>n 
of this lesson, to observe some fences in the neighbor- 
hood, and record the observations as follows : 



Kind of Fence., Materials Used. State of Repair. [Needed Attention. 




4. If there are any fences needing repair about 
the school yard or in the immediate neighborhood, it 
would be an excellent thing as an application of this 
lesson to have the pupils repair the fence and put it 
in as good a condition as they can. 

5. Problems : 

1. How many rods of fence will it take to fence 
a i5o acre farm? 

2. How many locust posts would be required 
to fence the 160 acre farm with wire. 

3. What would be the cost of woven wire fence 
for this farm? 

4. How long should such a fence last? 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 247 



LESSON XCIV 

Title. — Wood Working. 

Season. — Winter. 

Object. — To learn how to handle tools and make some 
simple forms in wood. 

Material. — A saw, chisel, brace and bits, a plane, a 
square, a marking gauge, hammer, nails, etc., and 
some pieces of lumber, and work-bench. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Note — This lesson is meant more for a suggestion 
of what may be done in the coursej in agriculture, 
than to give any explicit work for an extended develop- 
ment of wood working. It is very important that any 
farm boy or girl should know how to use tools, and 
to be able to make the necessary repairs and simple 
constructions needed on the farm. If the few tools 
can be provided, and the class in agriculture is will- 
ing to remain a few minutes after the regular school 
hours, a good beginning can be made in this line of in- 
dustrial work, even in the country school. Perhaps 
two pupils at a time could remain to use the tools and 
do this work each evening until the series of articles 
suggested are made. 

I. To saw a block, exactly four inches square. 
Do not be satisfied until the block is exactly square, 



248 



ONE lIU.\l)Ht:i) I.tSSO.NS IN 




ELEMENTARY AGKICULTtJBE 



249 



and exactly four inches square by one inch in thick- 
ness. 

2. To make a game board. Use the same block 
prepared above. Use the brace and bits and bore nine 
holes in the block, each hole one inch from the other, 
three rows of holes and three in a row. Now make 
six pegs to fit these holes. Color three of the pegs 
black with ink, and leave three unstained. The game 
board is now ready for use. 

3. Sawing to a line. Take a block, 3"x3"x6", 
mark lines on the six by three inch faces, parallel, one- 
half inch apart. Saw across the block, once to the 
one-half inch line, once to the inch line, and once to 



/xf! 






\ 3" X. (," 



mf^m: 



CrPTi'w/^ 



S<^-<^ ^^ <^ Ci^^ 



/-■t..^i^^Ar 





Go^C , 



250 ONE HUNDRED LESSOXS IX 

the one and one-half inch Une. Saw exactly to the line 
and stop. 

4. The square and T-niortise joint. Take blocks 
of wood about i"xi"x3" and plane them off smooth 
and clean. With the chisel and saw cut out a notch 
in the middle of one block to allow the end of the 
second to fit exactly into it. Make the joint even and 
neat. This is the T-joint. To make the square joint, 
bore and chisel out a hole near the end of the block, 
and cut a tongue in the end of the second block to fit 
exactly, and neatly into this hole. 

5. To make a box. Pupils might make a pencil 
box, dimensions about 3"x3"x9". This would necessi- 
tate an accurate use of the saw, plane, square and ham- 
mer. 

6. To make a gate. This piece of work would be 
a good practical application of all the pupils had 
learned in the more elementary practices. It would 
be worth while to try to have this article made at the 
school. Sample gates could be used as models. 

The figures accompanying may help in some of 
these exercises. 

The teacher should provide models for all the 
articles to be made. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 251 



LESSON XCV 

Title. — The Outlook in Agriculture in West Virginia. 

Season. — At any time. 

Object. — To learn what agricultural operations would 

pay best in West Virginia. 
Material. — Note-book and pencil. 

Sl'B.JECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Geographical and climatic conditions seem to in- 
dicate that there are three principal agricultural oper- 
ations which would pay the farmers of AVest Virginia 
to develop. — • 

1. Fruit growing. Many hillsides, poorly adapt- 
ed to grain cultivation, would produce profitable or- 
chards of apple, peach, cherry, and other smaller 
fruits. Some of the best fruit plantations of the United 
States are in West Virginia, and what has been done 
in one place can be done in many other parts of the 
State, for the conditions of successful fruit culture are 
similar in many parts of the State. It would be bet- 
ter for the soil of many farms, and for the purses o* 
many farmers were their hillsides planted to fruit 
trees, rather than to grain fields with weed-filled wash- 
outs. 

2. Dairying, grazing and stock raising. West 
Virginia has ranked among the first states in the pro- 
duction of fine-wooled sheep, and there is no reason 



252 OXE HUNDRED LESSOXS IX 

that this rank should not l)e maintahied. The hills 
Avill produce the finest of blue grass, timothy and clo- 
ver, and there are many natural advantages which may 
be used in the winter protection of the flock. The in- 
creased demand for dairy products should encourage 
grazing and cattle raising. AVith the improvement of 
country roads, and the extension of the railroads and 
trollies, the sale of milk, butter and live stock will be 
greatly facilitated, and the dairy business become a 
profitable agricultural operation in the State. 

3. Truck gardening. As the mines, and w'ells 
of oil and gas are developed throughout the State, 
more and more laborers leave the farm and become 
consumers of farm products rather than producers. In 
the many mining towns which have sprung up in all 
parts of West Virginia are thousands of laborers who 
do not even have a kitchen garden. The homes of 
these men must be supplied with the vegetables and 
products of the farm. If AA'est Virginia farms and 
gardens do not furnish these, those of other states will. 
There are many fertile valleys and fields near these 
industrial centers that could produce far more than 
they now do, toward supplying the demand for food 
products. 

4. After the discussion of this lesson in class, 
the pupils should write an essay on one of the above 
mentioned industries, and copy it neatly in their note- 
books. 



KLE.MEXTAHY AGRICULTURE 253 



LESSON XCVI 

iitle.— The Rural Free Mail Delivery. 

Season. — -At any time. Should probably be given early 

in the year. 
Object. — To learn something of the great service of 

the rural free mail delivery to the farmer. 
Material. — Note-book and pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

I. There is no modern convenience of greater im- 
portance to the country people than the rural free mail 
delivery. Although it is not self-sustaining, and costs 
the government large sums of money, it has come 
to stay, for the farmer sees that its service is a great 
necessity in the promotion of his welfare. In order 
to promote the greater efficiency of the rural delivery 
service, and at the same time render effective aid in 
the improvement of roads throughout the United 
States, the Post Office Department, and the Office of 
Public Roads have entered into a plan of co-operation 
looking to the betterment of all roads where the rural 
service is extended. Through this co-operation, re- 
cently a county in Indiana spent $85,000 for the im- 
provement of the rural mail routes. Upon the advice 
of the Post Office Department, the Office of Public 
Roads sends its engineers to inspect and advise as to 
the construction of local roads. 



254 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 

2. Let the pupils find out from the local carrier 
the following- points of information, and write it up 
in the record of this lesson : 

1. How many miles does the carrier travel in 
;. day? 

2. What is the carrier's salary? 

3- What is the condition of the roads? 

4- How many daily, and how many weekly 
papers are delivered on the route? 

5. What is the average, daily, first-class mail 
on the route? 

6. Does the postage of this route pay expen- 
ses? 

3. As another part of this lesson the teacher 
should have each pupil write a letter to the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, addressed to the Secretary of Ag- 
riculture, Washington, D. C, asking for at least twelve 
of the following Farmers" Bulletins: Have this let- 
ter copied neatly in the note-book record of this lesson. 

FARMERS' BULLETINS. (FREE.) 

The Feeding of Farm Animals. 

Weeds, and How to Kill Them. 

Potato Culture. 

Fowls : Care and Feeding. 

Facts About Milk. 

Sewage Disposal on the Farm. 

Commercial Fertilizers. 

Sheep Feeding. 

S andard Varieities of Chickens. 

Some Common Birds. 

The Dairy Herd. 

Bee-keeping. 

Marketing Farm Produce. 

Meadows and Pastures. 

The Liming of Soils. 

The Peach Twig Borer. 

Thirty Poisonous Plants. 

Potato Diseases and Treatment. 

Good Roads for Farmers. 

Insect Enemies of Shade Trees. 

Farmers' Reading Courses. 

Farmers' Interest in Good Seed. 



No. 


22. 


No. 


28. 


No. 


35. 


No. 


41. 


No. 


42. 


No. 


43. 


No. 


44. 


No. 


49. 


No. 


51. 


No. 


54. 


No. 


55. 


No. 


59. 


No. 


62. 


No. 


66. 


No. 


77. 


No. 


80. 


No. 


86. 


No. 


91. 


No. 


95. 


No. 


99. 


No. 


109. 


No. 


111. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 255. 



No. 113. The Apple. 

No. 126. Practical Suggestions for Farm Buildings. 

No. 127. Important Insecticides. 

No. 128. Eggs and Their Uses as Food. 

No. 132. Insec^ Enemies of Growing Wheat. 

No. 134. Tree-planting in Rural School Grounds. 

No. 136. Earth Roads. 

No. 141. Poultry Raising on the Farm. 

No. 154. The Home Fruit Garden. 

No. 155. How Insects Affect Health in Rural Districts. 

No. 156. The Home "Vineyard. 

No. 161. Prac ical Suggestions for Fruit Growers. 

No. 170. Principles of Horse Feeding. 

No. 173. Primer of Forestry 

No. 184. Marketing Live Stock. 

No. 185. Beautifying the Home Grounds. 

No. 187. Drainage of Farm Lands.. 

No. 192. Barnyard Manure. 

No. 196. Usefulness of the American Toad. 

No. 198. Strawberries. 

No. 199. Corn Growing. 

No. 203. Canned Fruits. Preserves, and .Tellies. 

No. 208. Varieties of Fruits Recommended for Plan'ing. 

No. 213. Raspberries. 

No. 215. Alfalfa Growing. 

No. 218. The School Garden. 

No. 220. Tomatoes. 

No. 228. ForeFt Planting and Farm Management. 

No. 229. The Production of Good Seed Corn. 

No. 231. Spraying for Cucumber and Melon Diseases. 

No. 235. Cement Mortar, and Concrete. 

No. 240. Inoculation of Legumes. 

No. 241. Butter Making on the Farm. 

No. 252. An Example nf Model Farming. 

No. 243. Fungicides and Their Use. 

No. 245. Renova ion of Worn-out Soils. 

No. 247. The Control of the Coddling Moth and Apple Scab. 

No. 248. The Lawn. 

No. 250. The Prevention of Smuts in Grain. 

No. 255. The Home Vegetable Garden. 

No. 256. Preparation of Vegetables for the Table. 

No. 260. Seed of Red Clover in Its Impurities. 

No. 265. Game Laws for 1906. 

No. 266. Management of Soils to Conserve Moistura 

Note. — The first rural route ever established was 
from Charles Town, West Virginia, by W. L. Wil- 
son, Postmaster General. 



25G ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON XCVII 

Title. — Beautifying Home Grounds. 

Season. — Autumn or Spring. 

Object. — To learn something of the principles of land- 
scape art, and how to map and design the home 
and school grounds. 

Material. — Note-book and pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

1. Learn the following- rules which should guide 
in every effort to beautify the school and home 
grounds : 

(a) Keep the lawn space open and green. 

(b) Plant in masses at the background, against 
buildings or on the borders, hiding objectionable 
views and opening up pleasing vistas. 

(c) Avoid the straight line in tree planting and 
walk making. 

2. It does not require wealth nor rare plants to 
beautify the home or school grounds. With little 
expense, good taste, a knowledge of the above princi- 
ples, and a willingness to work, the homes and schools 
of our country could be made more attractive and more 
natural. The woods are full of wild shrubs and flow- 
ers, that could be growing on our home and school 
grounds, if we would only transplant them there. On 
arbor day every school should revive the interest of 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



257 




258 OXE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 

the coninuinity in tree-planting' and other means of 
beautifying the home grounds. Back-yards with bar- 
ren ground covered with old tin cans and broken down 
chicken coops are not the surroundings in which boys 
and girls can grow up into beautiful and useful char- 
acters. Our minds are influenced by what we contin- 
ually look upon, and if we must look upon ugly land- 
scapes, we tend to grow sordid and ugly in spirit ; on 
the other hand, if we grow up in a home and school 
surrounded by beautiful natural scenes, our lives must 
grow more refined and appreciative. 

3. Draw a map of the school grounds, locating all 
buildings and plants. Indicate in the drawing the 
planting design you would advise. 

4. Draw a map of your home grounds, showing 
the location of all buildings and plantings. Criticize 
the plan of the planting. 

5. Make a list of all the trees, shrubs, and flow- 
ers that are growing as ornaments on your home 
ground. 

6. Have a "cleaning up" week, in which the 
school yard is cleared of all trash and ugly objects. 
Carry this mo^•e to the homes, and have the pupils en- 
ter competitive home- ground cleanings. This could 
be done in preparation for arbor day, avid the planting 
of flowers, shrubs, and trees would be a fitting climax 
to the whole work. 

7. List of annual flowers : Seed to be sown after 
the danger of frost is over. The best results are oD- 
tained if the plants are started in the house in April 
and set out after the tenth of May. Aster, Cockscomb. 
Cosmos, Dahlia, Mignonette, Myosotis, and Salvia. 



ELEilENTARY AGRICULTURE 



259 



J&^ 



mM_gc§^/| I f^ikj^i III! f c;/>)i)jj^ 1 1 ; mil 



$ 



<<i 




!t> •#»■•# -# 



$ 



$ 



t^ f^ -^ # 



SVrC^^ 




S ^T-ect 



SoutVy 



260 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 

8. Annuals : Seeds to be sown earh-. April or 
early Ma}'. Ageratnm, Alyssum, Amaranth, Candy- 
tuft, Carnation, Chrysanthemum, Dianthus, Larkspur, 
Marigold, Nasturtium, Petunia, Phlox, Poppy, Sweet 
Pea, Verbena, and Zinnia. 

9. List of popular perennials : Plants to be grown 
the previous summer. Columbine, Campanula, Canna, 
Hollyhock, Poppy (hardy), Rudbeckia, Sunflower, 
Sweet William, Delphinium, and all hardy pinks. 

10. List of shrubs for borders: Flowering Al- 
n-ii:)nd. Dwarf Cornus, Elder, Forsythia, Bush Honey- 
suckle, Hydrangea, Japan Quince. Lilac in variety, 
Privet, Roses in variety. Snowball, Spirea, Sumac, Wei- 
gelia, Deutsia, Norway Spruce, and other evergreens. 

11. List of trees for home and school grounds: 
Sugar Maple, Norway Maple, Box Elder, White Elm, 
Silver Maple, White Birch, Catalpa bungei. Tulip tree, 
Mulberry. AYhite Oak, etc. 

12. In planting trees about our homes and 
schools, we should not forget to plant a few^ such as 
the Serviceberry, Hackberry, Wild Cherry, etc , which 
furnish food for the song birds and attract them to 
our homes to add their life and cheer to the natural 
surroundings. 



ELEMEXTARY AflRICCLTURE * 261 



LESSON XCVIII 

Title.— The Farm Home. 

Season. — At any time. 

Object. — To try to picture tPie ideal farm home. 

Material. — Note-book and pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

I. Our lessons in agriculture would not do jus- 
tice to rural life if we did not refer to the country 
home, and its work and influence. The development 
of the material and industrial side of the home life has 
not kept pace with the progress of men's work on the 
outside. Many of the industries of the early homes 
have been wisely taken from them and given over to 
the factories and shops. Two industries yet remain ; 
cooking and cleaning. These are not much further 
advanced in their development than they were a thou- 
sand years ago. The time may come, it is to be hoped 
that it will, when women of thei home will be relieved 
from most of the drudgery of cleaning and cooking, 
and these industries be turned over to specialists who 
will do them better and cheaper than they are now 
done, and that the home may become a place of rest 
and culture for the lives within. It will be long years 
before such ideals can be realized in the countr}-, yet 
much can be done in the countrv home to lighten the 



262 OXE HUNDRED LESSOXS IN 

labors of the mother, and enlighten the n.ienibers of 
the household. 

2. Some conditions making for the betterment 
of the farm home : 

1. Beautiful natural sourroundings, as brought 
out in a former lesson. 

2. Absolute cleanliness from cellar to garret. 

3. The absence of all carpets, lace curtains, and 
bric-a-brac, and their places supplied with smooth, 
hard-wood finish of window and door casings ; hard- 
wood, waxed floors ; and furniture of plain, uncarved, 
smooth type. 

4. Few pictures, well selected, in plain, modest 
frames, placed ujion walls of restful tints. 

5. Good l)ooks, dail}' papers, magazines, and 
farm journals in the library. 

6. Musical instruments and members of the 
family who can appreciate good music. 

7. Ample, shady porches, screened doors and 
windows, and well ventilated rooms. 

8. Pure, clean food, well prepared and cooked, 
and cool, clean kitchen and dining rooms in which to 
prepare and eat the meals. 

9. A bath-room, with hot and cold water sup- 
plied. 

10. A telephone, and rural free mail service. 

11. All the labor saving machines that can be af- 
forded. 

12. Good roads, good schools, good churches, 
good markets available, and good people to live in 
the homes. 



ELEMEXTAKY ACHIt'lL riRE 2G3 

3. A stronger and l:»ttter country home! That 
is what we want. That is what we must have. The 
"New Earth" that is coming, will bring its rural 
nomes of good cheer, of culture and education. In 
these homes will be strong men, sensible women, and 
happy children. Love will be law and wisdom chief 
ruler, and the child that is born in them is sure of all 
that the highest thought can secure for him in body, 
soul and spirit. 

"This is the stronger home, and in that home must 
be seen all the graces and gentleness in thought and 
word that make the happy illumination which, on the 
inside of the house, correspond to morning sunlight 
outside, falling on quiet dewy fields. Out of such 
homes neither knaves in politics, nor tyrants in buM- 
ness competition can ever come. AVith such homes, 
the golden age already dawning as the new century 
opens hastens its steps. 

And for the woman in that home : — 
"A woman, in so far as she beholdeth 

Her one Beloved's face ; 
A mother, — with a great heart that enfoldeth 

The children of the race ; 
A body free and strong, with that high beauty 

That comes of perfect use is built thereof ; 
A mind wdiere reason ruleth over duty, 

And justice reigns with love ; 
A self-poised, royal soul, brave, wise, and tender, 

No longer blind and dumb ; 
A human being of unknown splendor. 

Is she who is to come." — (Helen Campbell.) 



2G4 ONE IIUNDKEI) LESSONS IN 



LESSON XCIX 

Title. — The Grange. 

Season. — At any time. 

Object. — To learn something of the work and pur- 
pose of the Grange, the greatest farmers' organi- 
zation in the world. 

Material. — Note-book and pencil. 

SUBJECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

Some facts about the Grange, submitted to the 
author by Prof. T. C. Atkeson, Master of West Vir- 
ginia State Grange, and Overseer of the National 
Grange. 

"The idea of a farmers' fraternal organization orig- 
inated in the mind of Oliver H. Kelley, a Minnesota 
farmer, while on a .trip through the southern states 
in 1867, soon after the , close of the great Civil War, 
where he had been sent by President Johnson to see 
what might be done to rebuild the devastated agri- 
culture of that great agricultural region. Mr. Kelley 
was a high degree Free Mason, and naturally his idea 
of a farmers' organization took the form of a secret 
society. Soon after his return to Washington, where 
he reported to the Department of Agriculture, he paid 
a visit to his niece, Miss Carrie A. Hall, who resided 
in Boston, and outlined to her his proposed farmers' 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 2G5 

organization. Miss Hall suggested that farmers' wives 
and daughters be admitted on full equality with the 
men, and from the first, the organization which fol- 
lowed has made no distinction on account of sex. Mr. 
Kelley unfolded his plans to a number of gentlemen 
in the Department of Agriculture and elsewhere, who 
became interested in the matter. 

The first meeting was held in the office of William 
Saunders, the horticulturist of the Agricultural De- 
partment at Washington, on the evening of December 
the fourth, 1867, which has ever since been known 
as the birthday of the order. The organization was 
named, "Patrons of Husbandry," and the word, 
"Grange," which means a farm home, was substituted 
for "lodge" as used by other organizations. 

There are Subordinate, Pomona, State, and Na- 
tional Granges, each one of which is represented by 
delegates in the next highest body up to the National 
Grange which is the supreme authority. All Granges 
have the same officers as follows : Master, Overseer, 
Lecturer, Stewart, Assistant Stewart, Chaplain, Treas- 
urer, Secretary, Gate Keeper, Ceres, Pomona, Flora, 
and Lady Assistant Stewart. 

The purpose of the organization is to promote t^ie 
interest of agriculture in every legitimate way possible, 
educationally, legislatively, co-operatively, and social- 
ly, with a view to develop a better manhood and wo- 
manhood on American farms. In its forty-one years 
of history, the Grange has accomplished a vast amount 
of good for American farmers, and practically every 
advancement made by agriculture in that time origi- 
nated with the Grange or has been eflftr Lively pro- 



2CG ONE mXDKKI) LK.SKOX.S IX 

moted by it. The Grange was an important factor 
in the establishment of agricultnral colleges, and high 
schools, and originated the idea of teaching elemen- 
tary agriculture in the public schools. Experiment 
stations are mainly the product of Grange advocacy. 
Rural mail delivery, the Department of Agriculture, 
the Interstate Commerce Commission, and hundreds 
of other measures of state or national legislation orig- 
inated with the Grange or were promoted by it. Its 
value to agriculture is beyond computation." 

The Grange is a live institution. It is satisfying 
a great need in rural society. It is based on correct 
principles : organization, co-operation, education. It 
is neither a •political party nor a business agency. It 
is neither ultra-radical nor forever in the rut. Its chief 
work is on cultural lines. It includes the entire fam- 
ily. It is now growing, and its growth is of a perma- 
nent character. 

"The Grange is ambitious to take its place beside 
the school and the church, as one of the trinity of forces 
that shall mold the life of the farmer on the broad- 
est possible basis, — material, intellectual, social, and 
ethical. Is there any good reason why this ambition 
is not worthy, or why its goal should not be won?" 
(President Butterfield of the Mass. Agricultural Col- 
lege, from his Chapters on Rural Progress.) 

Why Farmers Should Join the Grange. 

(By the authority of the Master of the National 
Grange.) 

1. Because it is inexpensive. 

2. Because it is the farmer's only organization, 



ELEMEXTAKY AGRICULTURE 267 

national in character. 

3. Because it has stood the test for forty-one 
years, and has never been found wanting" in any re- 
spect. 

4. Because it has exerted greater influence in 
securing state and national legislation in the interest 
of agriculture than any agency in the country. 

5. Because it is officered by those engaged in 
agriculture, who know from experience the needs of 
farmers, and are sincere in their desire to aid them 
in ever}' possible way. 

6. Because it is the duty of farmers to co-operate 
with one another, if they would successfully meet the 
influence of organization in everv direction, and secure 
for wife and home a fair share of what the harvest 
yields. 

7. Because it has exerted the greatest influence 
known in breaking up the isolation of farm life, and 
in making farm life attractive to the boys and girls, 
bringing sunshine and happiness into the farm home 
to such an extent as has never before existed. 

After the teacher has discussed this lesson with 
the pupils, all the text-book should be laid aside, and 
the pupils asked to write a brief essay in their note- 
books on the Grange, its history, plan of organization, 
purposes and work. 



2G8 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 



LESSON C 

Title. — Juvenile Agricultural Societies. 

Season. — At any school term. 

Object. — To learn how to organize and conduct an ag- 
ricultural club or society among boys and girls. 

Material. — The school house may be the meeting place 
of a permanent organization. Such other materials 
as any organized body needs. 

SL B JECT-MATTER AND METHOD 

This subject is here treated as a lesson in order 
to be in harmony with the plan of the series. In the 
agriculture class, on the day preceding" the organiza- 
tion of the society, the teacher should announce the 
plan and try to awaken an interest in the organiza- 
tion, and its purposes. 

A Friday afternoon quarter may be devoted to 
this work, and the pupils above the age of eight includ- 
ed. All boys and girls should know how to organize 
themselves, for in this way is learned that great !es- 
son of co-operation, so vital today in rural life. 

Let one of the older boys, at the suggestion of 
the teacher, call the meeting to order. Then let some 
boy rise and say : 

"Mr. Chairman, I nominate John Reihle (for ex- 
ample) for President." Another rises and says: 



KLEMENTAKY AGRICULTURE 2G9 

''Mr. Chairman, I second the nomination." 

Then let some one rise to say : 

"Mr. Chairman, if there are no other nominations, 
I move that John Reihle, be declared elected Presi- 
dent of this Society." 

Some one says, "I second the motion," then the 
boy who is acting as chairman says : 

"It has been moved and seconded that John Reihle 
be declared President of this Society. Are there any 
remarks?" Hearing' none, he says, "All those in favor 
say, 'yes' ". Pie estimates the vote. "All those opposed 
say, 'no' ". . If he receives more for than against, 
the chairman declares that John is elected. 

John then takes the place of the Chairman, and 
conducts the meeting. A secretary is then elected 
as above, preferably from among the girls. The fol- 
lowing Constitution and By-laws should be read by 
one of the pupils, and adopted by the Society as a 
tentative working plan : 

Constitution and By-laws of the Pre-juvenile Grange 

Club. 

Article i. 

The name of this society shall be the Pre-Juvenile 
Grange Club. 

Article 2. 

The objects of this society shall be, as the name 
signifies, to grow into the Juvenile Grange with all 
its plans and purposes ; to encourage the study of 



270 ONE IIl'XDKEI) LESSOXH IX 

Agriculture in the school and home ; to promote con- 
tests in plant growing-, animal raising, literary work, 
etc. : and to cultivate a love for the farm and home. 

Article 3. 

All the boys and girls oi the school over eight 
years of age are eligible for membership. Any person 
o\er eight and under fifteen, in the district and not 
in school, may be elected to membership bv a ma- 
jority vote. 

Article 4. 

The membership fee shall l)e ten cents, and the 
annual dues, five cents, payable at the beginning of 
the school year. 

Article 5. 

The officers shall consist of President. \"ice- 
])resident. v^ecretary. Treasurer. Speaker, and Usher. 

Article 6. 

It i.-; the duty of the President to preside at all 
meetings, preserve order, and command obedience to 
all rules. His emblem is a red ribbon worn on the la- 
pel of his coat. The Vice-president assists the President 
and presides in his absence. His emblem is a blue 
ribbon. The Speaker will assist the President and Sec- 
retary in arranging the literary program for the reg- 



ELK.MKXPARV ACKUTLTURE 271 

ular nieeLings. His cnil)leni is a green ribbon. The 
Secretary will kee]) a record of all meetings, receive the 
fees and dues of the members, and pay the same to 
the Treasurer, take and keep his receipts therefor. His 
emblem is the white ribbon. 

The Treasurer shall take charge of and keep all 
the money of the society, and pay out the same only 
I'pon orders signed by the President and Secretary. 
His emblem is the yellow ribbon. 

The Usher givards the door, shows memliers and 
visitors to seats, and helps the President ])reserve 
order. His emblem is a blue rod. 

Article 7. 

This societv shall meet every two weeks at the 
school house, either in the afternoon or evening as the 
teacher decides. Meetings ma}' be held at the homes 
of members. 

Article 8 

The order of business at tlie regular meetings 
shall he as followrs : 

1. Roll call. 

2. Reading of minutes of last meeting. 

3. Report of committees. 

4. Proposals for membership. 

5. Voting on new members. 

6. Literary program. 

7. Miscellaneous business. 

8. Adjournment. 



272 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 

By-laws. 

1. The literary program prepared by the Speak- 
er, President and Secretary, shall consist of music, 
recitations, readings, essays, orations and debates. The 
program shall be announced by the Speaker, two 
weeks in an advance. 

2. An annual exhibit should be arranged, per- 
haps best in the Autumn, in which the boys will exhibit 
field or garden products they have grown, and the 
girls flowers, vegetables or cookery. In preparing for 
this exhibit, the boys should each select in the spring 
the plat of ground, not to exceed one acre, nor less 
than ys acre, prepare, plant or sow any crop he may 
desire. Send for the best seeds, either to the De- 
partment of Agriculture at Washington, D. C, or to 
the State Agricultural College. From either of these 
places the pupil may get bulletins on any crop he 
chooses to grow for the exhibit. 

3. The teacher and society shall organize com- 
mittees to solicit prizes to award at the exhibit for 
the best vegetables, grain, animals, cookery, etc., 
brought by the pupils. 

4. The Society shall take an annual excursion, 
visiting the farms and homes of the district. This 
may take the form of a picnic, and be the happy end- 
ing of the school term. 

5. This constitution and by-laws may be amend- 
ed at any meeting by a two-thirds vote, provided the 
proposed amendment is posted in the school rooms 
two weeks before adoption. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 273 

To the teacher : This society may be, and should 
be, if a Grange is in the district, developed into the 
Juvenile Grange, a national order, recognized by the 
Patrons of Husbandry. 

The Juvenile Grange is a most excellent organ- 
ization for young people of the country. It has just 
enough secret work about it to make it attractive to 
young folks, and the ceremonies are beautiful 
and full of good lessons which every boy and girl 
should heed. In changing the above society to the 
Juvenile Grange, write to Prof. T. C. Atkeson, Mor- 
gantown, W. Va., Overseer of the National Grar 
or to C. M. Freeman, Tippecanoe City, Ohio, Secre- 
tary, for the Manual of the Juvenile Grange. Juven- 
ile Granges must be organized under the special 
charge of a Subordinate Grange. 



274 ONE IirXDHKl) LKSSOXS IN 



APPENDIX 



Sample Lesson, "Written it," to Show Pupils How' Each 
Lesson SHorLi) he Recorded in Their Per- 
manent Note-Books. 



LESSOX I 



Title. — Composition of Soils. 

Season. — (State the t:me when the lesson is s;uflied ) 
Object. — To study the composition of soils. 
Material. — A cupful of ordinary soil, som? humus, three 
one-quart fruit-jars, and water. 

• Si'imkct-Mattkr a.\d MEiuon. 

1. A cupful of ordinary soil was placed in:o one of 
tlie quart jars and aUowed to soak for a few hours in water 
that just covered it. The jar was then filled two-thirds full 
of water, the contents thoroughly stirred, and a' lowed to 
settle for one minute. The water and suspended soil was 
drained off into the second jar, leaving sand and gravel in 
the first. 

2. The contents of the second jar settled for five min- 
utes, and the water was then drained off into tlie tliird jar. 
Silt was left in the second jar. 

3. The contents of the third jar settled three days, 
after which the water was drained off. Clay was left in the 
third jar. 



NOTE. — A .similar record of each lesson phould be made in the 
Agricultural Note-book, at jthe conclusion of the experimental or ob- 
Kervational work. A few of the most important fac's should always 
be noted under the heading. "Things Learned from This Lesson." 



elementary agriculture 275 

Things Learxed From This Lesson. 

4. Sand originated from the crumbling of silicon rock, 
clay from feldspar rock, and humus from decayed plant or 
animal life. The particles of day are the smallest and 
stickiest of all soil particles. Humus will burn, but sand 
and clay will not. Sand is the heaviest soil by weight, but 
clay is usually referred to as heavy soil, and sand as light 
soil. Clay soils ought not to be worked while wet, because 
they will puddle and bake into hard clods when dried out. 
A loam is a mixture of sand, silt, clay, and humus. 

5. Make drawings of the three jars used. 



PRACTICAL INFORMATION. 

Contexts of Fields. 

10 rodsXlG rods=:l acre. 
8 rods X 20 rods=l acre. 
10 yds.X484 yds. = l acre. 
40 yds. X 121 yds. = l acre. 
220 feet X 198 feet=l acre 
120 feetX363 feet=l acre. 

Quantities of Seed Required to the Acre. 

Wheat, IV-j to 2 bushels. 
Oats, 2 to 4 bushe's. 
Rye, 1 to 2 bushels. 
Corn, % to Vi bushel. 
Potatoes, 5 to 10 bushels. 
Timothy, 12 to 24 quarts. 
Red Clover, 6 to 12 pounds. 



27g one huxored lessons in 

Weights of Grain Seed in Majority of the States. 

Wheat, 60 pounds per bushel. 

Corn, 56 pounds per bushel. 

Oats, 32 pounds per bushel. 

Clover Seed, 60 pounds per bushel. 

Timothy Seed, 45 pounds per busliel. 

Rye, 56 pounds per bushel. 

Blue Grass Seed, 14 pounds per bushel. 

Potatoes, 60 pounds per bushel. 

Fine Salt, 50 pounds per bushel. 

Corn Meal. 50 pounds per bushel. 

To Find the Number of Bushels in a Bin. 

Multiply together the length, breadth, and thickness in 
feet, and multiply this product by 8. (After Goff & Mayne.) 

To Find the Number of Tons of Hay in a Mow or Rick. 

In Mow. Multiply together the height, length and 
breadth in feet, and divide the product by 450 for timothy, 
and by 600 for clover hay. 

In Rick. Multiply the length by the breadth, and that 
product by one half the difference between the breadth and 
the distance over. This wijl give cubic feet. Divide as 
above to find the number of tons. (Goff & Mayne "^ 



SPRAY MIXTURES. 
For Fungous Diseases. 



Bordeaux Mixture. 

3 lbs. copper sulphate, 

6 lbs. lime. 

50 gallons water. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 277 



For Chewing Insects. 



3 lbs. to 10 lbs lead arsenate (disparene) 
100 gallons of water. 

For Sucking Insects. 

2 gallons kerosene. 
1 gallon water. 

Yz pound whale-oil soap. 
15 to 20 gallons water. 



ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY. 

In connection with the lessons on trees in this text, the 
following outline from Circular 130 of the Forest Service, 
will furnish some excellent subject-matter for the teaching 
of the elements of forestry: 

A. The forests of the locality in \Yhich you are teachiu,:^-. 
1. Economic value. 

1. As sources of useful products. 

2. For conservation of water. (Irrigation, water 
power, town and city supplies, etc.) 

3. For protection. (Floods, hot, cold, and drying 
winds.) 

4. Influence on erosion and soil protection. 

III. Location, extent, and character of these forests. 

1. On what kind of land (hiilly, rocky, sandy, 
swampy, or agricultural). 

2. Character and use. 

a. Softwoods or hardwoods. 
VJrgin or lumbered. 
Dense, thin, ~or open. 
Mature or Immature. 

b. How utilized — conservatively or destruc- 
tively, for saw timber, fuel, or other purposes. 



278 0.\E IIUNUKEU LESSONS I>f 

III. Protection of forests. 

1. Forest fires. 

a. Season of tlie year tliey occur. What are 
the causes? 

b. State legislation concerning forest fire-j 
Methods of protection — State, National and 
private. 

c. Precautions individuals should lake 
against fires. 

2. Grazing. 

a. Damage to forest. 

B. The forest of youi state. 

I. General. 

1. Approximate proportion of State forested. 

2. Principal forest products. 

3. Relation to important industnies of the State. 

4. Forest planting in the State — public and private. 

II. Forest reserves. 

1. Location and size of State reserves and Na- 
tional forests. 

2. Purposes of the reserves. 

C. The forests of the United States. 

I. General. 

1. Approximate proportion of the United States 
forested. 

2. Principal forest regions. 
3. Principal forest products. 

4. Relation to important industries of the country. 

II. National forests. 

1. General location. 

2. Purposes. 



ELEMEXTAKY AGUICTLTURE 



279 



CORNELL UNIVERSITY SCORE-CARD FOR FARMS. 



1. Kind of Farming — 

Adaptation as affec'.ing value 

2. Size — 

As adapted to kind of farming to be used 

3. Shape — 

As affecting shape of fields 

As affecting nearness of farmstead 

4. Topography — 

As affecting production 

As affecting ease of cultivation 

As affecting loss of soil fertility 

5. Fertility — 

Naural 

Condition , j 

6. Physical Properties — " I 

As affecting economy of cultivation I 

As affecting number of days of labor 

As affecting loss of soil fertility | 

7. Drainage — [ 

Natural or artificial ) 

S. Condition — I 

Freedom from stumps, stones, weeds, waste | 

land, etc j 

9. Climate — I 

As affecting production of live s'oek 

As affecting number of days of labor | 

10. Healthfulness — | 

As an economic factor j 

11. Water-supply — 

Running water and wells | 

12. Location — 

Local markets | 

Neighbors j 

Shipping facilities ] 

Roadways | 

13. Improvement^ — j 

Location of farmstead I 

House as adapted to farm needs I 

Other buildings as adapted to size of farm | 

and kind of farming | 

Fences, charac^er, condition, arrangement . . | 

14. Timber, orchards, vineyards, etc | 



Standard 
Score 

3 

2 
2 



15 
5 

1 
1 
2 



Score 



Total I 100 



The above score card, worked ^out tfor the pupils' home farms, 
would make valuable lessons in ElementaVy Agriculture. 



280 ONE HUNDRED LESSONS IN 

President Roosevelt appointed recently a commission 
to study and report upon the conditions of American country 
life. Thl's commission, of which L. H. Bailey is chairman, 
has submitted the following important questions to farmers, 
teachers, ministers, business men^ and others interested in 
country life: 

1. Are the farm homes in your neighborhood as good 
as they should be under ex.lsting conditions? 

2. Are the schools of your neighborhood training boys 
and girls satisfactorily for life on the farm? 

3. Do the farmers in your neighborhood get the returns 
they reasonably should from the sale of their products? 

4. Do the farmers in your neighborhood receive from 
the ra;Uroads, troWey lines, etc., the service they reasonably 
should have? 

5. Do the farmers in your neighborhood receive from 
the United States postal service, rural telephone, etc., the 
service they reasonably should expect? 

6. Are the farmers and their wives satisfactorily organ- 
ized to promote their mutual interests? 

7. Are the renters of farms 5n your neighborhood 
making a satisfactory living? 

8. Is the supply of farm labor in your neighborhood 
satisfactory? 

9. Are the conditions surrounding hired labor on the 
farms in your neighborhood satisfactory to the hired men? 

10. Have the farmers in your neighborhood satisfactory 
facilities for doing their business in banking, credit, 
insurance, etc.? 

11. Are the, sanitary conditions of the farms in your 
ndghborhood satisfactory? 

12. Do the farmers and their wives and families in 
your neighborhood get together for mutual improvement, 
entertainment, and social intercourse as much as they 
should? • 

Note. — Accompanying each question are the subordinate 
questions: "Why?" "What suggestions have you to make?" 



m 13 19C9 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



DD0ESflbS2^7 



